Asayansi ochokera ku yunivesite ya Cambridge (Great Britain) motsogozedwa ndi dokotala (Emily Mitchell), apeza momwe ma biometomole anachulukirana - chimodzi mwazinthu zoyambirira zamitundu mitundu padziko lapansi. Nkhani yonena za zomwe zalembedwazi Zachilengedweimasunganso tsambalo LiveSayansi.
Ma Rangeomorphs ankakhala munyanja zaka 565 zapitazo, munthawi ya Ediacar (nthawi ya Neo-Praterozoic). Popeza anali nyama zoyambirira kwambiri, analibe pakamwa kapena ziwalo zina, ndipo samatha kuyenda, koma anaphatikizana ndi seab. Thupi lawo limakhala ndi timinofu tambiri tambiri tosiyanasiyana tokhala ngati masamba a fern amakono.
Asayansi aku Cambridge adasanthula zakale za oimira Fractofusus, imodzi mwazomera mtundu, kuchokera ku miyala ya Ediacar kupitirira. Newfoundland (Canada), komwe zotsalira za zolengedwa zamasiku ano zam'madzi zimasungidwa bwino kwambiri padziko lapansi.
Kugwiritsa ntchito njira zowerengera powunikira momwe zidakhalira pamiyeso ya ma cellgeomorph, akatswiri a sayansi ya Cambridge adapeza kuti amagwiritsa ntchito njira ziwiri zoberekera. M'badwo woyamba wa zolengedwa izi, zomwe zidakhazikika m'dera lirilonse, zidabadwa kuchokera kumkangano wobwera ndi madzi. (Sizikudziwikabe kuti mikanganoyi idapangidwa mwakugonana kapena mwakuthupi.) Mibadwo yotsatirayi idagawanika kale kuchokera kwa apainiyawa mothandizidwa ndi njira.
"Kuberekanso mwa njira imeneyi kwathandizira kuti nthambiyi idayenda bwino, chifukwa imatha kupanga madera atsopano mwachangu ndikudziwonjezera mwachangu," atero Dr. Mitchell. "Kutha kwa zinthuzi kusintha pakati pa mitundu iwiri yosiyanasiyana ya kubereka kukusonyeza momwe malingaliro awo analiri ovuta, zomwe nzodabwitsa chifukwa mitundu ina yambiri ya moyo inali yakale kwambiri panthawiyo."
Ma rangomorphs anafalikiratu kwambiri munyanja za Ediacaria, koma kumayambiriro kwa nthawi yotsatira ya Cambrian (yomwe inali ya nthawi ya Paleozoic), mwadzidzidzi anazimiririka. Kuphatikiza pa chifukwa ichi, asayansi sangathe kuwasankhira "abale" odalirika pakati pazamoyo.
Tikubwerera kuzomwe zomwe Dr. Mitchell ndi ogwira nawo ntchito apeza, ndizofunikira kuti timvetsetse njira zolerera nyama zoyambirira zamitundu mitundu, ndi moyo wawo mokwanira.
Kuwerenga kwa zolengedwa zakale, malinga ndi zotsalira zawo, nthawi zina kumabweretsa zotsatira zosayembekezereka. Mwachitsanzo, posachedwa pomwe mwapeza kuti ndi kholo lakale kwambiri la mphutsi zamakono, asayansi adatha kudziwa zomwe zimachitika munthu atakhala ndi mphutsi zomwe zidakhalako nthawi ya kuphulika kwa Cambrian (zaka 540 miliyoni zapitazo) ndikupatsa dzina lake modabwitsa Hallucigenia. Zinapezeka kuti zomwe zinali zolakwika kumutu wa nyongolotsi ndi mchira, ndipo "miyendo" ija inang'ambika kumbuyo.
Panspermia
Ochirikiza lingaliro la panspermia ali otsimikiza kuti tizilombo tating'onoting'ono woyamba tidabwera padziko lapansi kuchokera mlengalenga. Chifukwa chake katswiri wodziwika bwino wa ku Germany wodziwika kuti Helmholtz, katswiri wazachipembedzo wa ku UK
Sayansi yotsimikizika ndikuti padziko lapansi, meteorites ochokera ku Mars ndi mapulaneti ena apezeka mobwerezabwereza, mwina kuchokera ku ma comets, omwe amatha kuchokera ku machitidwe akunja achilendo. Palibe amene amakayikira izi lero, koma sizikudziwikiratu kuti moyo ukadawonekeranso bwanji padzikoli. M'malo mwake, owapepesa chifukwa cha kusinthanitsa kwa panspermia "udindo" pazomwe zikuchitika pazitukuko zakunja.
Chiphunzitso Cha Msuzi Woyamba
Kubadwa kwa malingaliro amenewa kunapangidwa ndi kuyesa kwa Harold Urey ndi Stanley Miller, komwe kunachitika mu 1950s. Anatha kubwereza zofanananso zomwe zinali momwe zinalipo padziko lapansi chilengedwe chisanabadwe. Zotulutsa zamagetsi zazing'onoting'ono ndi ma ultraviolet zidadutsidwa kudzera mu mafuta osakanikirana a hydrogen, carbon monoxide ndi methane.
Kukula kwa moyo
Malinga ndi lingaliro lamakono la dziko la RNA, ribonucleic acid (RNA) inali molekyu yoyamba yomwe idapeza luso lodzibala lokha. Zaka mamiliyoni ambiri zitha kudutsa molekyu woyamba uja asanatulukire Padziko Lapansi. Koma atapangidwa, kuthekera kwa kutulutsa kwa moyo kunawonekera padziko lathuli.
Molekyu ya RNA imatha kuchita ngati puloteni mwa kuphatikiza ma nucleotide aulere muzowonjezera. Chifukwa chake, kuchulukitsa kwa RNA kumachitika. Koma mankhwala opangira mankhwala awa sangatchedwe cholengedwa, popeza alibe malire a thupi. Chamoyo chilichonse chimakhala ndi malire. Mkati mwa tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timatulutsa thupi timatha kusintha zinthu zomwe zimapangitsa kuti cholengedwa chizidyetsa, kuchulukana, kusuntha, ndi zina zotero.
Maonekedwe a mizere yakunyanja munyanja ndi chinthu chodabwitsa kwambiri. Amapangidwa ndi mafuta acids (aliphatic acid) omwe agwera m'madzi. Chowonadi ndi chakuti gawo limodzi la molekyu ndi hydrophilic, ndipo linalo ndi hydrophobic. Mafuta acids omwe atsekeredwa m'magawo am'madzi m'njira yoti ma hydrophobic malekezero ali mkati mwa gawo. Mwina mamolekyulu a RNA adayamba kugwera m'malo ngati amenewa.
Kodi anthu ali ndi zaka zingati?
Sianthu ambiri omwe amadziwa zaka za mitundu yamakono ya Homo Sapiens, kutanthauza munthu wololera, yemwe asayansi akuyerekezera zaka 200,000 zokha. Ndiye kuti, zaka za mtundu wa anthu monga zolengedwa ndizochulukitsa ka 1250 kuposa zaka zam'mgulu lodzala, zomwe ma dinosaurs adakhalamo.
Kuti tigwirizane ndi kudziwa ndikuwongolera izi ndizofunikira ngati tikufuna kumvetsetsa momwe moyo udawonekera papulaneti lathuli poyamba. Ndipo kodi anthu omwe amayesera kuti amvetsetse moyo uno adachokera kuti masiku ano?
Masiku ano, zida zopangidwa ndi asayansi zadziwika. Mbiri yochititsa nthumanzi ya kuyesa kwapazaka zaposachedwa, yomwe imatsimikizira chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko ndikuwunikira momwe moyo unayambira padziko lathuli, yautsa ziphunzitso zakale kwambiri. Zinsinsi za genetics, zomwe zimangopezeka kokha ku gulu laling'ono la "oyambitsa", zinapereka yankho losatsutsika pamaganizidwe a Darwin.
Mitundu Homo Sapiens (Homo sapiens) ali ndi zaka 200,000 zokha. Ndipo pulaneti lathuli ndi 4.5 biliyoni!
Gawo loyamba la magawidwe
Momwe maselo oyamba opangidwa ndi molekyulu ya RNA ndi nembanemba yamafuta acids adayamba kugawa sizikudziwika pakadali pano. Mwina, molekyulu yatsopano ya RNA yomangidwa mkati mwa nembanemba idayamba kutulutsa mawu kuchokera koyamba. Mapeto ake, m'modzi mwa iwo adasokoneza nembanemba. Pamodzi ndi molekyulu ya RNA, ma mamolekyulu ena amafuta omwe amapanga gawo latsopano kuzungulira iwonso adatsala.
Zipangizo zachinsinsi
Zaka mazana angapo zapitazo za malingaliro oterowo, munthu angayembekezere kuphedwa pamtengo. Giordano Bruno adawotchedwa chifukwa chachikunja zaka zopitilira 400 zapitazo, mu February 1600. Koma masiku ano, maphunziro achinyengo a apainiya olimba mtima adziwa pagulu.
Ngakhale zaka 50 zapitazo, abambo chifukwa cha kusazindikira nthawi zambiri ankalera ana a amuna ena, ngakhale amayi omwe sanali kudziwa chowonadi nthawi zonse. Lero, kukhazikitsa abambo ndi kusanthula wamba. Aliyense wa ife angayitanitse kuyesedwa kwa DNA ndi kudziwa kuti makolo ake anali ndani, omwe magazi ake amatuluka m'mitsempha yake. Zotsatira za mibadwo zikugwidwa kosatha pamtundu wa chibadwa.
Ndi m'ndondomeko iyi pomwe yankho la funso loyaka kwambiri lomwe lili m'malingaliro a anthu lilipo: kodi moyo udayamba bwanji?
Zida zopangidwa ndi asayansi zimawonetsa mbiri ya kufunitsitsa kupeza yankho lolondola. Iyi ndi nkhani yakulimbikira, kupirira komanso luso lodabwitsa, kukumbatira zopambana kwambiri za sayansi yamakono.
Pofunafuna kuti amvetsetse momwe moyo unayambira, anthu amapita kukasanthula mbali zakutali za dziko lapansi. Pakufufuza kumeneku, akatswiri ena adalandira chipongwe cha "anyani" pazomwe adayesa, pomwe ena adachita mowonera.
Precambrian (Cryptose)
Precambrian adakhala zaka pafupifupi 4 biliyoni. Munthawi imeneyi, kusintha kwakukulu kwachitika Padziko Lapansi: kutumphuka kwazirala, nyanja zam'madzi zawoneka ndipo, koposa zonse, moyo wakale udawonekera. Komabe, zomwe zimapezeka m'moyo zakalezi ndizosowa, chifukwa zolengedwa zoyambirira zinali zazing'ono komanso zopanda zipolopolo zolimba.
Precambrian nkhani zambiri zam'mbiri ya Dziko Lapansi - pafupifupi 3.8 biliyoni zaka. Kuphatikiza apo, kuwerengera nthawi kukukulidwa moyipitsitsa kuposa Phanerozoic wotsatira. Chomwe chimapangitsa izi ndichakuti zotsalira za organic ndizosowa kwambiri mu precambrian sediments, yomwe ndi imodzi mwazomwe zimasiyanitsa mapangidwe azakale izi. Chifukwa chake, njira ya paleontological yophunzirira sikugwirira ntchito precambrian strata.
Archean Aeon (zaka 4.6 - 2,5 biliyoni zapitazo)
Kafukufuku wa meteorites, miyala ndi zinthu zina za nthawiyo zikuwonetsa kuti dziko lathuli lidapangidwa zaka pafupifupi 4.6 biliyoni zapitazo. Mpaka nthawi imeneyo, panali kokha diski yoyera kuzungulira Dzuwa, yopangidwa ndi mpweya ndi fumbi la cosmic. Kenako, mothandizidwa ndi mphamvu yokoka, fumbi linayamba kusonkhanitsa matupi ang'onoang'ono, omwe pamapeto pake anasanduka mapulaneti.
Kwa zaka mamiliyoni ambiri, palibe mitundu ya moyo padziko lapansi. Pambuyo pa gawo la Archean kusungunuka kwa chovala cham'mwamba ndi kutenthedwa kwake ndikuwoneka ngati nyanja yamamadzi pamtunda uno, gawo lonse la Dziko Lapansi, pamodzi ndi maziko ake oyamba komanso oyika kwambiri, atalowa mwachangu kwambiri. Mlengalenga nthawi imeneyo kunalibe matope ndipo panali mpweya wapoizoni monga ammonia (NH3) methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), chlorine (Cl2), sulufule. Kutentha kwake kunafika 80 ° C. Ma radioacac mwachilengedwe anali ochulukirapo nthawi zambiri kuposa apano. Moyo m'mikhalidwe ngati imeneyi unali wosatheka.
Zaka 4 biliyoni zapitazo, Dziko lapansi limagwirizana ndi thupi lakumwamba lofanana ndi Mars, pulaneti loyesa la Teia. Kugunda kunali kwamphamvu kwambiri kotero kuti zinyalala zomwe zidapangidwa panthawi ya kuwombana zidaponyedwa m'malo ndikupanga mwezi. Kapangidwe ka mwezi kunathandizira kuti moyo ubuke: kunayambitsa mafunde omwe anachititsa kuti nyanja ikhale yakuyeretsa komanso kukonzanso nyanja. gwero silinatchulidwe masiku 2933 ] kukhazikika kwa kuzungulira kwa Dziko lapansi.
Zinthu zoyambirira zaka za moyo wazaka pafupifupi 3.5 biliyoni zapezeka m'miyala ya Australia (Pilbara). Mafuta a organic adapezeka pambuyo pake m'miyala yomwe idayamba zaka biliyoni 4.1. Mwina moyo unachokera m'masupe otentha, pomwe panali michere yambiri, kuphatikizapo ma nucleotide.
Moyo ku Archean unasanduka mabakiteriya ndi cyanobacteria. Amakhala ndi moyo wapansi pansi: adakutira pansi pa nyanja ndi ululu woonda.
Kodi moyo unayamba bwanji padziko lapansi?
Mwinanso ichi ndi chovuta kwambiri pamafunso onse omwe alipo. Kwa zaka masauzande ambiri, anthu ambiri afotokoza izi ndi lingaliro limodzi - "milungu idalenga moyo." Mafotokozedwe ena sanakhale osamveka. Koma popita nthawi, zinthu zasintha. M'zaka zonse zapitazi, asayansi akhala akuyesera kuti adziwe momwe moyo woyamba padziko lapansi unayambira, akulemba a Michael Marshall ku BBC.
Asayansi amakono ambiri omwe akuwerenga magwero a moyo atsimikiza kuti akuyenda moyenera - ndipo kuyesereraku kumangolimbitsa chidaliro chawo. Zomwe zapezeka mu genetics zimalembanso buku la chidziwitso kuyambira patsamba loyamba mpaka lomaliza.
- Osati kale kwambiri, asayansi atapeza kholo lakale kwambiri la munthu yemwe adakhala padziko lapansi zaka pafupifupi 540 miliyoni zapitazo. Izi zikuchokera ku "toothy sac" iyi yomwe mitundu yonse yam'magazi inachokera, ofufuza akutero. Kukula kwa kholo lakale wamba kunkangokhala millimeter.
- Ofufuza amakono adakwanitsa kupanga cholengedwa choyambirira chokhala ndi kusintha kwakukulu mu DNA. Tili kale pafupi kwambiri ndi kapangidwe ka mapuloteni atsopano, ndiko kuti, moyo wosapanga chilichonse. M'zaka mazana angapo zapitazo, mtundu wa anthu wakwanitsa kupanga cholengedwa chatsopano.
- Sikuti timapanga zatsopano zokha, komanso molimba mtima kusintha zomwe zilipo. Asayansi apanga "mapulogalamu" omwe amalola kugwiritsa ntchito zida za DNA kusintha tcheni cha DNA. Mwa njira, 1% yokha ya DNA imanyamula zidziwitso zamtundu, ofufuzawo akutero. Chifukwa chiyani tikufuna otsalira 99%?
- DNA ndi yosunthika kwambiri mwakuti mutha kusungira chidziwitso pa iyo ngati hard disk. Kanema walembedwa kale pa DNA ndipo amatha kutsitsa zomwe zanenedwazo popanda mavuto, monga ankakonda kutenga mafayilo kuchokera pa diskette.
Kodi mumadziona kuti ndinu ophunzira komanso amakono? Kenako muyenera kudziwa izi.
Ngakhale kuti kupezeka kwa DNA kunachokera ku 1869, sizinachitike mchaka cha 1986 kuti chidziwitsochi chikagwiritsidwa ntchito koyamba mwa akatswiri azam'mbuyo.
Nayi nkhani ya chiyambi cha moyo padziko lapansi
Moyo ndi wokalamba. Dinosaurs mwina ndiodziwika kwambiri mwa zolengedwa zonse zomwe sizinachitike, koma adawoneka zaka 250 miliyoni zapitazo. Moyo woyamba padzikoli unayambira kale kwambiri.
Zinthu zakale kwambiri, malinga ndi akatswiri, zili ndi zaka pafupifupi biliyoni 3.5. Mwanjira ina, ndi okulirapo maulendo 14 kuposa ma dinosaurs oyamba!
Komabe, awa si malire. Mwachitsanzo, mu Ogasiti 2016, mabakiteriya atapezeka, omwe ali ndi zaka 3.7 biliyoni. Ichi ndi chachikhumi ndi chikwi kuposa ma dinosaurs!
Dziko lenilenilo silakalamba kwambiri kuposa mabakiteriyawa - pulaneti lathuli linapangidwa zaka pafupifupi 4.5 biliyoni zapitazo. Ndiye kuti, moyo woyamba pa Dziko lapansi udayamba "mwachangu", patadutsa zaka pafupifupi mamiliyoni 800 padziko lapansi panali mabakiteriya - zinthu zamoyo, zomwe, malinga ndi asayansi, zimatha kukhala zovuta kwambiri pakapita nthawi ndikuyamba koyamba kuzinthu zosavuta zam'nyanja, ndipo kumapeto -endani, ndi kwa mtundu wa anthu womwe.
Ripoti laposachedwa kuchokera ku Canada likutsimikizira izi: mabakiteriya akale kwambiri akuti ali ndi zaka pakati pa 3,770 ndi 4,300 biliyoni. Ndiye kuti, moyo padziko lathuli, mwina, unachokera "ena" zaka 200 miliyoni atapangidwa. Anapeza tizilombo tokhala pansi pazitsulo. Zotsalira zawo zinapezeka m'miyala ya quartz.
Ngati tilingalira kuti moyo udachokera Padziko Lapansi - zomwe zikuwoneka zomveka, titapezabe kuti sitidazipeze pazinthu zina zakuthambo, mwina mapulaneti ena kapena zidutswa za meteorites zomwe zidachokera kumwamba - ndiye izi ziyenera kuti zidachitika munthawi imeneyo. , yomwe imatenga zaka biliyoni pakati pa nthawi yomwe mapulaneti amapangidwa, ndi tsiku lomwe zinachulika zakale zopezeka m'nthawi yathu ino.
Chifukwa chake, pochepetsa nthawi yomwe imatikondweretsa, kudalira maphunziro aposachedwa, titha kuganiza kuti moyo woyamba padziko lapansi ndi uti.
Asayansi adayambiranso mawonekedwe a zimphona zazikulu za mafupa omwe amapezeka pakufukula.
Cholengedwa chilichonse chamoyo ndichopanga ma cell (momwemonso inu)
Kalelo m'zaka za zana la 19, akatswiri ofufuza zinthu zachilengedwe apeza kuti zamoyo zonse zimakhala ndi "maselo" - timizeremizere tating'onoting'ono tokhala ndi mawonekedwe ndi kukula kwake.
Maselo anapezeka koyamba m'zaka za zana la 17, nthawi yomweyo ndikupanga ma maikulosikopu amphamvu kwambiri, koma patatha zaka zana ndi theka, asayansi anazindikira kuti: maselo ndiye maziko a zamoyo zonse padziko lapansi.
Zachidziwikire, kunja, munthu samawoneka ngati nsomba kapena ma dinosaurs, koma ingoyang'ana pa maikulosikopu kuwonetsetsa kuti anthu ali ndi maselo ofanana monga oimira nyama. Komanso, yemweyo maselo underlie zomera ndi bowa.
Zamoyo zonse zimakhala ndi ma cell, kuphatikiza inunso.
Mtundu wawukulu kwambiri wa moyo ndi mabakiteriya osakanizidwa.
Masiku ano, mitundu yambiri ya moyo imatha kutchedwa tizilombo tating'onoting'ono, timene timakhala ndi selo limodzi limodzi.
Mtundu wodziwika kwambiri wa moyo woterewu ndi mabakiteriya omwe amakhala kulikonse padziko lapansi.
Mu Epulo 2016, asayansi adapereka mtundu wa "mtengo wamoyo": mtundu wamitundu yobadwira pamitundu iliyonse ya chamoyo. Ambiri mwa "nthambi" za mtengo uwu ndi mabakiteriya. Komanso, mawonekedwe a mtengowo akuwonetsa kuti kholo la zolengedwa zonse padziko lapansi linali bakiteriya. Mwanjira ina, zolengedwa zamitundu mitundu (kuphatikiza inu) zimachokera ku bacterium imodzi.
Chifukwa chake, titha kufikira molondola pankhani ya chiyambi cha moyo. Kuti mubwererenso choyambirira, muyenera kudziwa molondola momwe zinthu ziliri papulaneti zoposa 3.5 biliyoni zaka zapitazo.
Ndiye ndizovuta bwanji?
Mabakiteriya okhala ndi mitundu yodziwika kwambiri padziko lapansi.
Kuyamba kwa kuyesa
Kwa zaka zambiri, funso "Kodi moyo unayamba kuti?" sikuti anafunsa mozama. Zowonadi, monga tidakumbukira kale pachiyambi, yankho lidadziwika: moyo udalengedwa ndi Mlengi.
Mpaka zaka za zana la 19, anthu ambiri amakhulupirira "chofunikira". Chiphunzitsochi chimakhazikika pa lingaliro loti zolengedwa zonse zimapatsidwa mphamvu yapadera, yamzimu yomwe imawasiyanitsa ndi zinthu zopanda moyo.
Malingaliro a kufunikira nthawi zambiri amakhala akutsutsana ndi malingaliro achipembedzo. Bayibulo likuti Mulungu, pogwiritsa ntchito "mpweya wamoyo", adatsitsimutsa anthu oyambirirawo, ndikuti mzimu wosafa ndi chimodzi mwazinthu zofunikira kwambiri.
Koma pali vuto limodzi. Malingaliro of kufunikira kwenikweni ndi olakwika.
Pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1800, asayansi atatulukira zinthu zingapo zomwe zimapezeka zokha kuchokera kuzamoyo. Chimodzi mwazinthu izi zinali urea zomwe zinali mkodzo, ndipo zidapezeka mu 1799.
Kupeza kumeneku, komabe, sikutsutsana ndi lingaliro lofunika kwambiri. Urea imawonekera pazamoyo zokha, motero mwina adapatsidwa mphamvu yapadera, yomwe idawapangitsa kukhala osiyana ndi ena.
Imfa yofunikira
Koma mu 1828, Friedrich Wöhler wa ku Germany, yemwenso ndi wopanga mankhwala, adatha kupanga urea kuchokera ku mankhwala opanga - ammonium cyanate, omwe sanagwirizane ndi zinthu zachilengedwe. Asayansi ena adatha kubwereza kuyesa kwake, ndipo zidawonekeratu kuti zinthu zonse zachilengedwe zitha kupezeka kuchokera kuzinthu zosavuta kupanga.
Izi zidathetsa kufunikira kwamphamvu monga lingaliro lasayansi.
Koma kusiya zikhulupiriro zawo kunali kovuta kwambiri kwa anthu. Zowona kuti mu ma organic ophatikizika okhazokha pazamoyo zokha sizinthu zapadera, kwa ambiri, zinkawoneka kuti zikulepheretsa moyo wa chinthu chamatsenga, kutembenuza anthu kuchokera ku zolengedwa zaumulungu kukhala makina. Zowonadi, izi zinali zosiyana kwambiri ndi Baibulo.
Ngakhale akatswiri ena amapitilizabe kumenya nkhondo yofunikira. Mu 1913, wasayansi wazungu wa ku England dzina lake Benjamin Moore adalimbikitsa kwambiri malingaliro ake akuti "mphamvu zamitundu mitundu", zomwe zinali zofunikira kwambiri, koma pachikuto china. Lingaliro la kufunikira kwa zinthu limakhala ndi mizu yolimba mu moyo wa munthu pamalingaliro.
Masiku ano, malingaliro ake amatha kupezeka m'malo osayembekezeka kwambiri. Mwachitsanzo, talingalirani nkhani zopeka za sayansi pomwe "mphamvu zake" zofunikira zimatha kuzimiridwanso kapena kuphatikizidwa. Kumbukirani "mphamvu zakusintha" zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi liwiro la Time Lords kuchokera ku Doctor Who. Mphamvu izi zitha kubwezeretsedwanso zikakhala kuti zitha. Ngakhale lingaliroli likuwoneka lotaika, kwenikweni ndi chiwonetsero cha malingaliro akale.
Chifukwa chake, pambuyo pa 1828, asayansi pamapeto pake anali ndi chifukwa chabwino chofunsira kuti adziwe momwe moyo udakhalira, tsopano kutaya malingaliro onena za kulowererapo kwa Mulungu.
Koma sanayambe kufufuza. Zikuwoneka kuti mutu wa kafukufuku wabwera ndi zida zake zokha, koma, zaka makumi angapo sizinafikire chinsinsi cha chiyambi cha moyo.Mwina aliyense adakakamirabe ku kufunikira kuti asinthe.
Darwin ndi chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko
Kupambana kwakukulu pankhani yakufufuza zachilengedwe m'zaka za zana la 19 chinali chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko, chopangidwa ndi Charles Darwin ndikupitilizidwa ndi asayansi ena.
Chiphunzitso cha Darwinzofotokozedwa mu The Origin of Species cha 1859, adafotokoza momwe mitundu yonse yosiyanasiyana yazinyama idachokera kwa kholo limodzi.
Darwin adati Mulungu sanachite kulengedwa mtundu uliwonse wa zolengedwa zokha payokha, ndikuti mitundu yonseyi imachokera ku chamoyo chomwe chidawoneka zaka mamiliyoni zapitazo, chomwe chimatchulidwanso kuti kholo lotsiriza la chilengedwe chonse.
Lingaliroli lidakhala lotsutsana kwambiri, chifukwa lidatsutsana ndi zolemba za m'Baibulo. Malingaliro a Darwin adatsutsidwa kwambiri, makamaka ndi Akhristu omwe adakhumudwitsa.
Koma chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko sichinanene chilichonse chokhudza momwe chamoyo choyambirira chidayambira.
Kodi moyo woyamba unakhalako bwanji?
Darwin anamvetsetsa kuti ili linali funso lokwanira, koma (mwina osafuna kuti achite nawo mkangano wina ndi atsogoleri achipembedzo) adangotchulapo kalatayo kuyambira 1871. Kamvekedwe ka kalatayo kanawonetsa kuti wasayansi amadziwa zakuya kwa nkhaniyi:
"Koma ngati tsopano [oh ndiye wamkulu bwanji!] m'malo osungira ofunda aliwonse okhala ndi mchere wa ammonium ndi phosphorous komanso wofikiridwa ndi kuwala, kutentha, magetsi, etc., mapuloteni opangidwa ndi zinthu zina otha kusintha zina zovuta ... "
Mwanjira ina: lingalirani dziwe laling'ono lodzala ndi zinthu zosavuta zachilengedwe ndipo lili pansi pa dzuwa. Zina mwazomwe zimapangidwa zimayamba kuyanjana, ndikupanga zinthu zovuta, monga mapuloteni, omwe, nawonso, amatha kuyanjana ndikupanga.
Malingaliro ake anali apamwamba. Koma, komabe, idapanga maziko a malingaliro oyamba okhudza momwe moyo udachokera.
Darwin sikuti adangopanga lingaliro la chisinthiko, komanso adatinso moyo udachokera m'madzi ofunda omwe amakhala ndi zophatikizika zofunika.
Malingaliro osintha a Alexander Oparin
Ndipo zoyambira mbali iyi sizinatenge konse komwe mukadayembekezera. Mutha kuganiza kuti maphunziro ngati awa, otanthauza ufulu woganiza, amayenera kuchitika ku UK kapena ku America, mwachitsanzo. Koma zoona zake, maumboni oyamba okhudza momwe moyo udayambira adayikidwa patsogolo pa kufotokozedwa komweko kwa Stalinist USSR, wasayansi yemwe dzina lake mwina simunamvepo.
Amadziwika kuti Stalin adatseka maphunziro ambiri pamtundu wa genetics. M'malo mwake, adalimbikitsa malingaliro a wokhulupirira zakuthambo Trofim Lysenko, omwe, akuganiza, anali oyenera kwambiri pazikhulupiriro zachikomyunizimu. Asayansi omwe adachita kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi genetics amakakamizidwa kuthandizira malingaliro a Lysenko, apo ayi pangozi yoti akhoza kukhala m'misasa.
Munali munthawi yovuta kwambiri kotero kuti wasayansi wazachipembedzo Alexander Ivanovich Oparin adachita zoyeserera zake. Izi zidatheka chifukwa adadziyambitsa yekha chikomyunizimu wodalirika: adalimbikitsa malingaliro a Lysenko ndipo adalandiranso Order of Lenin - mphotho yabwino kwambiri kuposa zonse zomwe zidalipo panthawiyo.
Mu 1924, Oparin adasindikiza buku la On the Origin of Life. M'bukuli, adafotokoza momwe moyo udayambira, zomwe zinali zofanana ndi zitsanzo zosavuta za Darwin's "hot reservoir".
Katswiri wofufuza zamankhwala ku Soviet Alexander Oparin ananena kuti zamoyo zoyambirira zinapangidwa monga coacervates.
Chiphunzitso chatsopano chamoyo woyamba padziko lapansi
Oparin adalongosola zomwe Dziko lapansi lidali m'masiku oyamba atapangidwa kale. Dziko lathuli linali ndi malo otentha kwambiri ndipo linakopa meteorite ang'onoang'ono. Kuzungulira konse kunali miyala yosungunuka basi, yomwe inali ndi mitundu yayikulu ya mankhwala, ambiri aiwo atapangidwa ndi kaboni.
Mapeto ake, Dziko lapansi lidazizira mokwanira, ndipo nthunzi yoyamba idasanduka madzi amadzimadzi, ndikupanga mvula yoyamba. Pambuyo pakupita kwakanthawi, nyanja zamadzi otentha zidawonekera pa dziko lapansi zomwe zinali ndi mafuta okhala ndi mpweya. Zochitika zinanso zitha kuchitika mu magawo awiri.
Loyamba limakhudzana ndi momwe zinthu zimapangidwira momwe zinthu zovuta kwambiri zimapangidwira. Oparin adanenanso kuti shuga ndi ma amino acid ofunikira pazinthu zamoyo zitha kupezeka m'malo otsukira madzi padziko lapansi.
M'chiwonetsero chachiwiri, zinthu zina panthawi yolumikizirana zinayamba kupanga ma microscopic. Monga mukudziwa, ma organic ambiri samasungunuka m'madzi: mwachitsanzo, mafuta amapanga wosanjikiza pamwamba pamadzi. Koma zinthu zina, zikaphatikizana ndi madzi, zimapanga maulalo ozungulira, kapena "coacervates," ndi ma diameter mpaka 0.01 cm (kapena 0,004 mainchesi).
Mukawona ma coacervates pansi pa maikulosikopu, mutha kuwona kufanana kwawo ndi maselo amoyo. Amakula, amasintha mawonekedwe ndipo nthawi zina amagawidwa m'magawo awiri. Amathandizanso pazinthu zowazungulira, kuti zinthu zina zizitha kulowa mkati mwake. Oparin adati ophatikizana anali makolo a maselo amakono.
Chiphunzitso Cha John Haldane Cha Moyo Woyamba
Patatha zaka zisanu, mu 1929, wasayansi wina Wachingelezi, John Burdon Sanderson Haldane, mosadukiza anayika malingaliro ake ndi malingaliro ofanana, omwe adasindikizidwa mu magazini ya Rationalist Year.
Haldane pofika nthawi imeneyo anali atathandizira kwambiri kuti chiphunzitso cha chisinthiko chikhale cholimba, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti malingaliro a Darwin aphatikizidwe mu sayansi ya genetics.
Ndipo anali munthu wosaiwalika. Nthawi ina poyeserera m'chipinda chowongolera, adakumana ndi chotupa, chomwe adalembapo izi: zinthu zofunika kwambiri. ”
Monga Oparin, Haldane adatanthauzira ndendende momwe ma organic amatha kuyendera m'madzi: "(kale) nyanja zoyambirira zidafikira msuzi wotentha." Izi zidapangitsa kuti ziziwoneka "zoyamba kukhala zamoyo kapena theka." Muzochitika zomwezo, zophweka kwambiri zimatha kukhala mkati mwa "filimu yamafuta".
A John Haldane, mosadalira Oparin, adayika malingaliro ofananawo okhudza momwe zolengedwa zoyambirira zidakhalira.
Chofunikira cha Oparin-Haldane
Chifukwa chake, akatswiri oyamba a sayansi omwe adalimbikitsa izi anali Oparin ndi Haldane. Koma lingaliro lakuti Mulungu kapena “mphamvu yamoyo” ina yeniyeniyo sanatengepo mbali pakupanga zinthu zachilengedwe linali lalikulu. Monga lingaliro la Darwin la chisinthiko, lingaliro ili linali lodetsa kumaso kwa Chikristu.
Mphamvu ya USSR idakwaniritsa mfundoyi. Mu ulamuliro wa Soviet, kusakhulupirira kuti kuli Mulungu kunalamulira mdzikolo, ndipo maulamuliro anachirikiza mosangalala malongosoledwe okonda kutengera zinthu zovuta ngati moyo. Mwa njira, Haldane analinso wosakhulupirira kuti kuli Mulungu komanso wachikominisi.
"M'masiku amenewo, lingaliro ili limangowona chifukwa cha zikhulupiriro zawo zokha. “Ku Soviet Union, malingaliro awa adalandiridwa ndi chisangalalo, chifukwa safuna Mulungu. Ndipo Kumadzulo adagawidwa ndi onse omwe anali ndi mapiko amanzere, achikominisi, ndi ena otero. "
Lingaliro loti moyo lidapangidwa mu "msuzi woyamba" wazinthu zopanga thupi limatchedwa gawo la Oparin-Haldane. Amawoneka okhutira mokwanira, koma panali vuto limodzi. Panthawiyo, palibe zoyeserera zilizonse zomwe zidatsimikiziridwa zomwe zingatsimikizire zowona za izi.
Kuyesera koteroko kunayamba kokha patatha pafupifupi zaka pafupifupi 25.
Kuyesera koyamba kolenga moyo "vitro"
Funso la momwe moyo unayambira linakhala ndi chidwi ndi Harold Urey, wasayansi wotchuka yemwe adalandira kale mphoto ya Nobel mu chemistry mu 1934 ndipo adatenga nawo gawo pakupanga bomba la atomiki.
Panthawi ya nkhondo yachiwiri yapadziko lonse, Yuri adagwira nawo ntchito ya Manhattan, kusonkhanitsa unulin osasunthika-235 wofunikira pa bomu la bomba. Nkhondo itatha, Yuri adalimbikitsa kulamulidwa ndiukadaulo kwa nzika.
Yuri adayamba kuchita chidwi ndi zamankhwala zomwe zimapezeka kumalo akunja. Ndipo chosangalatsa kwambiri kwa iye ndi machitidwe omwe adachitika nthawi ya mapangidwe a dzuwa. Mu umodzi mwa zokambirana zake, adanenanso kuti poyamba pa Earth, mwina, kunalibe mpweya. Ndipo maupangawa anali abwino pakapangidwe ka "msuzi woyamba", womwe Oparin ndi Haldane amakambirana, popeza zina mwazinthu zofunika zinali zopanda mphamvu kotero kuti zimatha kusungunuka pakakumana ndi mpweya.
Phunziroli lidaperekedwa ndi wophunzira wa udokotala dzina lake Stanley Miller, yemwe adatembenukira kwa Yuri ndi lingaliro kuti achite zoyeserera motengera lingaliro ili. Poyamba, Yuuri anali wokayikira lingaliro, koma pambuyo pake Miller anatha kumunyengerera.
Mu 1952, Miller adayesa kuyesa kwodziwika bwino kwambiri kwazomwe zimakhudzana ndi kufotokozera komwe kudachokera moyo padziko lapansi.
Kuyesa kwa Stanley Miller kunakhala kodziwika kwambiri m'mbiri ya kuphunzira zakuyambira kwa zinthu zapadziko lapansi.
Kuyesa kodziwika kwambiri pa chiyambi cha moyo pa Dziko Lapansi
Kukonzekera sikunatenge nthawi yayitali. Miller adalumikiza matambula angapo magalasi momwe zinthu zinayi zomwe zimayenera kukhala kuti zidalipo Padziko lapansi zoyambirira: madzi otentha, hydrogen, ammonia ndi methane. Mpweya womwe unkayatsidwa mwachangu - zinali zofanizira kuwombera kwa mphezi, zomwe zinali zofala padzikoli.
Miller adawona kuti "madzi mu botolo amawoneka ngati opendekera pambuyo pa tsiku loyamba, ndipo sabata yoyamba itatha, njira idasanduka yofiyira ndikusintha kukhala kofiyira." Panapangidwa mankhwala atsopano.
Miller atasanthula kapangidwe ka yankho, adapeza kuti ili ndi ma amino acid awiri: glycine ndi alanine. Monga mukudziwa, ma amino acid nthawi zambiri amafotokozedwa ngati mipanda ya moyo. Ma amino acidswa amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga mapuloteni omwe amawongolera njira zambiri zamankhwala amthupi lathupi lathu. Miller adapangidwa kuchokera pachiwonetsero chazofunikira kwambiri chamoyo.
Mu 1953, zotsatira za kuyesaku zidasindikizidwa mu magazini yotchuka ya Science. Yuri, wolemekezeka, ngakhale kuti sanali wasayansi wazaka zake, manja adachotsa dzina lake pamutuwu, kusiya ulemerero wonse kwa Miller. Koma ngakhale izi zidachitika, kafukufukuyu amatchedwa "Miller-Yuri Experiment".
Tanthauzo la kuyesa kwa Miller-Yuri
"Ubwino wa kuyesa kwa Miller-Urey ndikuwonetsa kuti ngakhale m'malo osavuta, ma molekyulu ambiri achilengedwe amatha kupangidwa," atero a John Sutherland, wasayansi ku Cambridge Laboratory of Molecular Biology.
Sikuti tsatanetsatane wonse wa kuyesaku anali wolondola, monga momwe zinadzadziwira pambuyo pake. M'malo mwake, Kafukufuku wasonyeza kuti mipweya ina yomwe inali mlengalenga Dziko lapansi loyamba. Koma izi sizikuchotsa phindu la kuyesera.
"Zinali zoyeserera zazikulu zomwe zidagwedeza malingaliro a ambiri, ndichifukwa chake zimawonetsedwa mpaka pano," akutero Sutherland.
Potengera kuyesa kwa Miller, asayansi ambiri adayamba kufunafuna njira zopangira mamolekyulu osavuta kuzungulira. Yankho la funso lakuti “Kodi moyo unayamba bwanji padziko lapansi?” Linkawoneka kuti lili pafupi kwambiri.
Koma kenako zidapezeka kuti moyo ndi wovuta kwambiri kuposa momwe ungaganizire. Maselo amoyo, monga momwe zilili, sikuti amangokhala mankhwala okha, koma njira zazing'ono zovuta. Mwadzidzidzi, kulengedwa kwa maselo amoyo kuchokera pachiwonetsero kunasanduka vuto lalikulu kwambiri kuposa momwe asayansi amayembekezera.
Kufufuza zamtundu ndi DNA
Pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1900, asayansi anali atasiyana kale ndi lingaliro loti moyo ndi mphatso yochokera kwa milungu.
M'malo mwake, adayamba kuwerengera za mwayi wokhala ndi moyo komanso zachilengedwe padziko lapansi loyambirira - ndipo, chifukwa cha kuyesa kwapadera kwa a Stanley Miller, umboni udayamba kutuluka mu lingaliro ili.
Pomwe Miller adayesa kupanga moyo kuchokera pachiyambi, asayansi ena adazindikira kuti majini amapangika bwanji.
Pofika pano, mamolekyulu ambiri aphunzira kale. Izi zimaphatikizapo shuga, mafuta, mapuloteni ndi ma nikisi acid, monga "deoxyribonucleic acid" - ndi DNA.
Masiku ano aliyense amadziwa kuti majini athu amapezeka mu DNA, koma kwa akatswiri a sayansi ya m'ma 1950 izi zinali zodetsa nkhawa kwenikweni.
Mapuloteni anali ndi mawonekedwe ena ovuta, ndichifukwa chake asayansi amakhulupirira kuti zidziwitso zamtundu zili momwemo.
Chiphunzitsochi chinatsutsidwa mu 1952 ndi asayansi aku Carnegie Institute - Alfred Hershey ndi Marta Chase. Adaphunzira ma virus osavuta, ophatikiza mapuloteni ndi ma DNA, omwe adachulukitsa mwa kupatsira mabakiteriya ena. Asayansi apeza kuti ma virus a DNA, osati mapuloteni, amalowa mabakiteriya. Kuchokera pamenepa, adatsimikiza kuti DNA ndiyopanga ma genetic.
Kupeza kwa Hershey ndi Chase chinali chiyambi cha mpikisano womwe cholinga chawo chinali kuphunzira kapangidwe ka DNA ndi mfundo za ntchito yake.
A Martha Chase ndi Alfred Hershey adazindikira kuti DNA ili ndi chidziwitso cha majini.
Kapangidwe ka Spiral DNA - chimodzi mwazinthu zofunikira kwambiri zomwe zapezedwa m'zaka za zana la 20 lino
Oyamba kuthana ndi vutoli anali a Francis Crick ndi a James Watson a ku yunivesite ya Cambridge, osathandizidwa ndi mnzake wa Rosalind Franklin. Izi zinachitika chaka chimodzi kuyesera kwa Hershey ndi Chase.
Kupeza kwawo kunakhala kofunika kwambiri m'zaka za zana la 20. Kupeza kumeneku kunasintha momwe timayang'ana komwe moyo unayambira, kuwulula chilengedwe chodabwitsa kwambiri cha maselo amoyo.
Watson ndi Crick adazindikira kuti DNA ndi helix (screw iwiri) yomwe imawoneka ngati masitepe opindika. Iliyonse ya "mitengo" iwiri ya makwerero iyi imakhala mamolekyu omwe amatchedwa ma nucleotide.
Kapangidwe kameneka kamamveketsa bwino momwe maselo amatengera DNA yawo. Mwanjira ina, zikuwonekeratu momwe makolo amapatsira ana awo mitundu.
Ndikofunikira kumvetsetsa kuti helix iwiri imatha "kumasulidwa". Izi zimatsegulira mwayi wopezeka mu genetic code, wophatikizana ndi ma genetic bas (A, T, C ndi G), omwe nthawi zambiri amakhala otsekedwa mkati mwa "masitepe" a makwerero a DNA. Ulusi uliwonse umagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati template popanga china.
Njira imeneyi imalola kuti majini akhale cholowa kuyambira pachiyambi cha moyo. Mitundu yanu yomwe imachokera ku bakiteriya wakale - ndipo ndikutumiza kulikonse amagwiritsa ntchito limodzilo lomwe Crick ndi Watson adapeza.
Mu 1953, Watson ndi Crick adasindikiza lipoti lawo mu magazini ya Nature. Zaka zingapo zotsatira, asayansi adayesetsa kumvetsetsa bwino zomwe zimapezeka mu DNA, komanso momwe imagwiritsidwira ntchito m'maselo amoyo.
Kwa nthawi yoyamba, chimodzi mwazinsinsi zam'kati mwa moyo zawululidwa kwa anthu.
Kapangidwe ka DNA: mafupa awiri ammbuyo (maunyolo antiparallel) ndi awiriawiri a nucleotide.
Vuto la DNA
Zotsatira zake, DNA ili ndi ntchito imodzi yokha. DNA yanu imauza maselo a thupi lanu momwe amapangira mapuloteni (ma protein) - mamolekyulu omwe amagwira ntchito zofunika zambiri.
Popanda mapuloteni, simukanatha kugaya chakudya, mtima wanu ukadasiya kugunda, ndipo mpweya wanu umaleka.
Koma kubwezeretsanso momwe amapangira mapuloteni pogwiritsa ntchito DNA kwenikweni ndi ntchito yovuta kwambiri. Aliyense amene anayesera kufotokoza komwe moyo unayambira samatha kudziwa momwe chinthu chovuta kwambiri chitha kuonekera ndi kudzipangika chokha.
Puloteni iliyonse imakhala ndi ma amino acid ambiri omwe amaphatikizidwa m'njira inayake. Dongosolo ili limapanga mawonekedwe atatu a mapuloteni ndipo, motero, cholinga chake.
Chidziwitsochi chakhazikitsidwa mwanjira ya DNA.Chifukwa chake, foni ikafuna kupanga mapuloteni ena, imawerengera jini yolingana mu DNA kuti apange mndandanda wa amino acid wambiri.
Kodi RNA ndi chiyani?
Pakukonzekera kugwiritsa ntchito ma cell a DNA khungu limodzi.
- DNA ndiye chinthu chamtengo wapatali kwambiri kuposa maselo onse. Chifukwa chake, maselo samakonda kupeza DNA pazochita zilizonse.
- M'malo mwake, maselo amatengera chidziwitso kuchokera ku DNA kupita mu mamolekyu ang'onoang'ono a chinthu china chomwe chimatchedwa RNA (ribonucleic acid).
- RNA ndi yofanana ndi DNA, koma imakhala ndi chingwe chimodzi.
Ngati titha kufananizira pakati pa DNA ndi buku la laibulale, ndiye kuti RNA pano idzawoneka ngati tsamba ndi chidule cha bukulo.
Njira yotembenuzira chidziwitso kudzera mu unyolo wa RNA kukhala mapuloteni imamalizidwa mothandizidwa ndi molekyulu yovuta kwambiri yotchedwa "ribosome".
Izi zimachitika m'maselo aliwonse amoyo, ngakhale mabacteria osavuta. Kuti mukhale ndi moyo, ndikofunikira monga chakudya ndi kupuma.
Chifukwa chake, kufotokozera kulikonse kwa mawonekedwe amoyo kuyenera kuwonetsa momwe trio yovuta idawonekera, ndi momwe idayambira kugwira ntchito, yomwe imaphatikizapo DNA, RNA ndi ribosomes.
Kusiyana pakati pa DNA ndi RNA.
Chilichonse ndichovuta kwambiri.
Malingaliro a Oparin ndi Haldane tsopano adawoneka opanda pake komanso osavuta, komanso kuyesa kwa Miller, pomwe ma amino acid angapo ofunikira kuti apangidwe mapuloteni adapangidwa, amawoneka osangalala. Panjira yayitali yolenga moyo, kafukufuku, zopindulitsa, zinali zoyambira chabe.
"John amapanga RNA kupanga mapuloteni, onse ali m'thumba lotsekedwa ndi mankhwala," akutero a John Sutherland. “Mumayang'ana ndi kudabwa ndi zovuta zake. Kodi tichitenji kuti tipeze fumbi lanyumba lomwe lidzachite izi zonse pamodzi? ”
Mwina moyo unayamba ndi RNA?
Woyamba kuyesa kuyankha funsoli anali wasayansi wina waku Britain dzina lake Leslie Orgel. Anali m'modzi mwa oyamba kuwona mtundu wa DNA wopangidwa ndi Crick ndi Watson, ndipo kenako adathandizira NASA kudzera mu pulogalamu ya Viking, pomwe ma module atatumizidwa ku Mars.
Orgel adafunitsitsa kuti ntchitoyi ikhale yophweka. Mu 1968, mothandizidwa ndi Crick, adanenanso kuti kunalibe mapuloteni kapena ma DNA m'maselo amoyo oyamba. M'malo mwake, anali pafupifupi RNA yonse. Poterepa, mamolekyulu a RNA oyambilira amayenera kukhala onse. Mwachitsanzo, adafunikira kupanga makope awo, mwina pogwiritsa ntchito njira yofanana yopangira ma CD.
Lingaliro loti moyo unayamba ndi RNA lidakhudza kwambiri zofufuza zina zonse. Ndipo zinayambitsa mikangano yoopsa mdziko la asayansi, lomwe silinathebe mpaka pano.
Poganiza kuti moyo unayamba ndi RNA ndi chinthu china, Orgel adanenanso kuti chimodzi mwazinthu zofunika kwambiri m'moyo - kuthekanso kudzipanga - zidawonekera kale kuposa ena. Titha kunena kuti sanawonetse momwe moyo unayambira, koma analankhula za zenizeni za moyo.
Akatswiri azachilengedwe ambiri anagwirizana ndi lingaliro la Orgel kuti "kubereka inali yoyamba." Mu lingaliro la Darwin la chisinthiko, kuthekera kwa kubereka kuli patsogolo: iyi ndi njira yokhayo kuti thupi "lipambane" mu mpikisano uwu - ndiko kuti, kusiya ana ambiri.
Leslie Orgel adayika patsogolo kuti maselo oyamba adagwira ntchito pamaziko a RNA.
Gawani m'misasa 3
Koma mawonekedwe ena ndi mawonekedwe a moyo, ofunikanso chimodzimodzi.
Zodziwikiratu kwambiri ndizoyambira: kuthekera kotenga mphamvu zachilengedwe ndikugwiritsa ntchito populumuka.
Kwa akatswiri azambiri zamankhwala, kagayidwe kachakudya ndi mawonekedwe a moyo, amaika luso lakubala pamalo achiwiri.
Chifukwa chake, kuyambira mu 1960s, asayansi akulimbana ndi chinsinsi cha moyo adayamba kugawidwa m'misasa iwiri.
"Omwe adanenanso kuti metabolism idawonekera pamaso pamtundu wa genetics, yotsirizirayo idali malingaliro osiyana," akufotokoza Sutherland.
Panali gulu lachitatu, lomwe linanena kuti poyamba chidebe cha mamolekyulu ofunikira chiyenera kuwonekera, chomwe sichingawalole kupatuka.
"Kuphatikiza nyumba kumayenera kukhala koyamba, chifukwa popanda iyo, cell metabolism imakhala yopanda nzeru," akufotokoza a Sutherland.
Mwanjira ina, khungu limayenera kukhala koyambirira kwa moyo, monga Oparin ndi Haldane adatsimikizira kale zaka makumi angapo m'mbuyomu, ndipo mwina cell iyi ikadakhala kuti idapangidwa ndi mafuta osavuta ndi lipids.
Iliyonse mwa malingaliro atatuwo adalandira othandizira ake ndipo adapulumuka mpaka lero. Asayansi nthawi zina amaiwala zaukadaulo wamagazi ndipo anangoikira kumbuyo lingaliro limodzi mwa malingaliro atatu.
Zotsatira zake, misonkhano yazasayansi pankhaniyi nthawi zambiri imatsatiridwa ndi zovuta, ndipo atolankhani zokhudzana ndi zochitika izi nthawi zambiri amamva ndemanga zosasangalatsa kuchokera kwa asayansi ochokera ku kampu imodzi yokhudza ntchito ya anzawo kuchokera kwa awiriwo.
Tithokoze Orgel, lingaliro lakuti moyo unayamba ndi RNA linadzetsa gawo limodzi pamayankho.
Ndipo mu 1980s, anapeza zodabwitsa zomwe zimatsimikizira malingaliro a Orgel.
Choyamba chinali chiyani: chidebe, metabolism kapena genetics?
Chifukwa chake, kumapeto kwa zaka za 1960, asayansi adagawika m'makampu atatu posaka yankho la chinsinsi cha moyo padziko lapansi.
- Omwe anali ndi chitsimikizo kuti moyo udayamba ndikuyamba kupanga mitundu yakale yachilengedwe.
- Wachiwiri amakhulupirira kuti gawo loyamba komanso lofunikira linali metabolic system.
- Ndipo ena adalingaliranso za kufunikira kwa chibadwa komanso kubereka.
Msasa wachitatu uyu anali kuyesa kulingalira momwe wolemba woyamba angawonekere, kukumbukira malingaliro kuti wolemba ayenera kukhala wa RNA.
Nkhope zambiri za RNA
Pofika m'ma 1960, asayansi anali ndi zifukwa zambiri zokhulupirira kuti RNA ndiye gwero la moyo wonse.
Zifukwazi zinaphatikizira kuti RNA ikhoza kuchita zomwe DNA sakanachita.
Pokhala molekyu yokhala ndi chingwe chimodzi, RNA imatha kuwerama, kudzipereka m'njira zosiyanasiyana, zomwe sizinapezeke kwa DNA yolimba ndi maunyolo awiri.
Origami-kupanga RNA imafanana kwambiri ndi mapuloteni m'machitidwe ake. Kupatula apo, mapuloteni ndi maunyolo atali ofanana, koma okhala ndi ma amino acid, osati ma nucleotide, omwe amawalola kupanga mitundu yovuta kwambiri.
Ichi ndiye chinsinsi cha kuthekera kwodabwitsa kwambiri kwa mapuloteni. Mapuloteni ena amatha kuthandizira, kapena "kuyambitsa," kusintha kwamankhwala. Mapuloteni awa amatchedwa ma enzymes.
Mwachitsanzo, m'matumbo a anthu mumakhala ma enzymes ambiri omwe amaphwanya mamolekyulu azakudya kukhala osavuta (monga shuga) - ndiye kuti omwe pambuyo pake amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi maselo athu. Kukhala wopanda ma enzyme kungakhale kosatheka. Mwachitsanzo, kumwalira kwaposachedwa kwa mchimwene wake wa mtsogoleri wa ku Korea ku eyapoti ku Malaysia kudachitika chifukwa choti enzyme (enzyme) yomwe imachepetsa mphamvu yotsekemera ya VX yasiya kugwira ntchito mthupi lake - chifukwa chake, kupuma kwamphamvu kumadwala ndipo munthuyo amwalira patangopita mphindi zochepa. Enzymer ndizofunikira kwambiri kuti thupi lathu lizigwira ntchito.
Leslie Orgel ndi Francis Crick anayambanso lingaliro lina. Ngati RNA ikanatha kuwonjezera, monga mapuloteni, kodi ingapangenso michere?
Ngati izi zikadakhala choncho, ndiye kuti RNA ikhoza kukhala choyambirira - komanso mochuluka kwambiri - molekyula yamoyo yomwe imasunga zidziwitso (monga momwe DNA imachitira) ndikuwongolera zimachitika, zomwe zimadziwika ndi mapuloteni ena.
Lingaliroli linali losangalatsa, koma pazaka 10 zotsatira palibe umboni womwe udapezeka kuti uthandizire.
RNA Enzymes
A Thomas Check anabadwira ku Iowa. Ngakhale ali mwana, kukondana kwake kunali miyala ndi mchere. Ndipo ku sukulu yasekondale anali mlendo wokhazikika ndi akatswiri a sayansi yaku yunivesite yakomweko, omwe adamuwonetsa zitsanzo zamapangidwe amamineral. Pambuyo pake adakhala wokhulupirira zam'magazi, kuyang'ana kwambiri kuphunzira kwa RNA.
Cha m'ma 1980, Chek ndi mnzake ku Yunivesite ya Colado ku Boulder adaphunzira cholengedwa chomwe chimatchedwa Tetrahymena thermophile. Gawo la ma cell a cellular lidaphatikizanso maunyolo a RNA. Onani kuti gawo limodzi la RNA nthawi zina limasiyanitsidwa ndi linzake, ngati kuti limasiyanitsidwa ndi lumo.
Gulu lake litalamula ma enzyme onse ndi mamolekyulu ena omwe amatha kupanga ngati maselo, RNA adapitilizabe kupatula gawo ili. Panthawiyo, enzyme yoyamba ya RNA inapezeka: gawo laling'ono la RNA lokhoza kudzipatula lokha pazokha zomwe adalumikiza.
Check anafalitsa zotsatira mu 1982. Chaka chotsatira, ofufuza ena anapeza enzyme yachiwiri ya RNA, aka "ribozyme".
Popeza ma enzyme awiri a RNA amapezeka mwachangu, asayansi akuganiza kuti mwina zingakhale zinanso zambiri. Tsopano zowonjezereka zowonjezereka zimalankhula m'malo mwake kuti moyo unayamba ndi RNA.
Thomas Check adapeza enzyme yoyamba.
RNA World
Woyamba kutcha nkhaniyi anali Walter Gilbert.
Monga katswiri wazamankhwala yemwe mwadzidzidzi anali ndi chidwi ndi sayansi yopanga maselo, Gilbert anali m'modzi mwa anthu oyamba kuchirikiza chiphunzitso chotsatira cha chibadwa cha anthu.
M'nkhani ya 1986 mu magazini ya Nature, Gilbert anati moyo unayamba m'dziko lotchedwa RNA World.
Gawo loyamba la chisinthiko, malinga ndi Gilbert, "zidali momwe" mamolekyulu a RNA amachita ngati amphaka, amadzisonkhanitsa okha msuzi wa nucleotides. "
Mwa kukopera ndi kupaka zidutswa zingapo za RNA mu unyolo wofanana, mamolekyulu a RNA amapanga maunyolo ena othandiza malinga ndi omwe alipo. Zotsatira zake, mphindi idafika pomwe adaphunzira kupanga mapuloteni ndi ma enzyme apuloteni, omwe adakhala othandiza kwambiri kuposa matembenuzidwe a RNA, chifukwa chofunikira kwambiri chowachotsa ndikuwapatsa moyo womwe tikuwona lero.
Dziko la RNA ndi njira yokongola kwambiri yopangira zolengedwa zovuta kuzimanganso kuyambira.
Mu lingaliro ili, munthu safunika kudalira mapangidwe amodzi a ma simulidi achilengedwe mu "msuzi woyamba", zidzakwanira molekyulu imodzi yomwe zonse zinayambira.
Umboni wa
Mu 2000, RNA World hypothesis idapeza umboni wotsimikiza.
A Thomas Steitz adatha zaka 30 akuwerenga momwe mamolekyulu amapanga maselo amoyo. Mu 90s, adayamba kuphunzira kwakukulu kwa moyo wake: kuphunzira kapangidwe ka nthiti.
M'maselo onse amoyo, nthiti imakhalapo. Molekyulu yayikuluyi imawerenga malangizo kuchokera ku RNA ndikuphatikiza amino acid kuti apange mapuloteni. Ma Ribosomes mu ma cell amunthu amakhala ndi gawo lililonse la thupi.
Pofika nthawi imeneyo, zinali zodziwika kale kuti nthochi imakhala ndi RNA. Koma mu 2000, gulu la Steitz lidapereka mwatsatanetsatane mawonekedwe a nthiti, momwe RNA idawonekera ngati gawo lothandizira la nthiti.
Kupeza kumeneku kunali koopsa, makamaka poganizira momwe moyo wakale ndi wofunika kwambiri pamoyo. Mfundo yoti njira yofunika ngati imeneyi idakhazikitsidwa pa RNA idapangitsa kuti chiphunzitso cha "RNA World" chidziwike kwambiri kwa asayansi. Kwambiri, onse omwe ali kumbali ya "RNA World" adakondwera ndi zomwe adapeza, ndipo Steitz adalandira mphotho ya Nobel mu 2009.
Koma zitatha izi, asayansi adayamba kukayikira.
Mavuto a chiphunzitso cha "RNA World"
Chiphunzitso cha "RNA World" poyamba chinali ndi mavuto awiri.
Choyamba, kodi RNA imatha kugwira ntchito zonse zofunika? Ndipo kodi zikadakhoza kupangika momwe zidakhalire Earth wakale?
Patha zaka 30 kuchokera pamene Gilbert adapanga chiphunzitso cha "RNA World", ndipo tiribe umboni wokwanira kuti RNA ndiwokhoza kuzonse zomwe zafotokozedwazi. Inde, ndi molekyulu yochita ntchito modabwitsa, koma kodi RNA imodzi ndiyokwanira kuzinthu zonse zomwe zimapangidwira?
Kusemphana kumodzi kunali kovuta. Ngati moyo unayamba ndi molekyulu ya RNA, zikutanthauza kuti RNA imatha kupanga akeawo, kapena ma replicas.
Koma palibe aliyense wa RNA onse odziwika omwe ali ndi kuthekera uku. Kuti apange mtundu weniweni wa chidutswa cha RNA kapena DNA, ma enzyme ambiri ndi mamolekyulu ena amafunikira.
Chifukwa chake, chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 80, gulu la akatswiri asayansi yazinthu zamatsenga linayamba kuphunzira kosafunikira. Adalinganiza kuti apange RNA yokhoza kudzipindulira.
Kuyesa kupanga RNA yodzipangitsanso tokha
Jack Shostak wa ku Harvard Medical School anali woyamba mwa ofufuzawo. Kuyambira ali mwana, anali wokonda kwambiri umagwirira kotero kuti adasinthanso pansi pake kukhala labotale. Ananyalanyaza chitetezo chake, chomwe nthawi inayake chidaphulika chomwe chidakhomera botolo lagalasi kulowa padenga.
M'zaka zoyambirira za 80s, Shostak adawonetsa bwino momwe majini amtundu amadzitetezera kuukalamba. Kufufuza koyambirira kumeneku kumadzabweretsa m'ndandanda wa omwe apambana mphoto za Nobel.
Koma posakhalitsa adadzozedwa ndikufufuza kwa Chek kokhudzana ndi ma enzyme a RNA. "Ndikuganiza kuti iyi ndi ntchito yodabwitsa," akutero Shostak. "Mwachidziwikire, ndizotheka kuti RNA ikhoza kukhala chothandizira popanga makope anu."
Mu 1988, Chek anapeza enzyme ya RNA yomwe imatha kupanga molekyu ya 10-nucleotide RNA.
Shostak adaganiza zopita patsogolo ndikupanga michere yatsopano ya RNA mu labotale. Gulu lake lidapanga ndandanda yotsatirika ndipo idayesa iliyonse kuti ipeze imodzi yomwe ingathe kukhala ndi chothandizira. Kupitilira apo, mndandanda unasintha, ndipo mayesowo anapitiliza.
Pambuyo poyesera 10, Shostak adatha kupanga enzyme ya RNA yomwe, monga chothandizira, inapangitsa kuti izi zichitike mwachangu kwambiri mamiliyoni 7 kuposa momwe zimakhalira kuthengo.
Gulu la Shostak latsimikizira kuti ma enzyme a RNA amatha kukhala amphamvu kwambiri. Koma chidwi chawo sichimatha kupanga zofananira zawo. Awa anali mathero akufa a Shostak.
Enzyme R18
Mu 2001, kuwonjezeka kwotsatira kunapangidwa ndi wophunzira wakale wa Shostak - David Bartel wa ku Massachusetts Institute of Technology ku Cambridge.
Bartel adapanga enzyme ya RNA yotchedwa R18, yomwe imatha kuwonjezera ma nucleotide atsopano pamakona a RNA potengera zomwe zidalipo.
Mwanjira ina, puloteni sinangowonjezera mwachisawawa ma nucleotide, koma adalemba mwatsatanetsatane tsatanetsatane.
Ma mamolekyulu odziyambitsa okha anali akadali kutali, koma mayendedwe anali olondola.
Enzyme ya R18 inali ndi unyolo wa ma 189 nucleotides, ndipo ikhoza kuwonjezera ina 11 - ndiye 6% kutalika kwake. Ofufuzawo akuyembekeza kuti poyesa zochulukirapo izi 6% zitha kusinthidwa kukhala 100%.
Wopambana kwambiri pantchitoyi anali a Philip Holliger ochokera ku Laboratory of Molecular Biology ku Cambridge. Mu 2011, gulu lake lidasintha ma enzyme a R18 kuti apange enzyme ya TC19Z, yomwe imatha kutsata ma 95 ma nucleotide. Izi zidawerengera 48% kutalika kwake - zopitilira R18, koma 100% sizofunikira.
A Gerald Joyce ndi a Tracy Lincoln a ma script a La Jolla Research Institute apereka njira ina yothetsera nkhaniyi. Mu 2009, adapanga enzyme ya RNA yomwe imapanga mtundu wawo mosadziwika.
Ma enzyme awo amaphatikiza zidutswa zazifupi za RNA ndikupanga enzyme ina. Iyenso, amaphatikiza zidutswa zina ziwiri za RNA kuti apange enzyme yoyambayo.
Ndi zida zopangira, kuzungulira kosavuta uku kumatha kupitilira kwamuyaya. Koma ma enzyme amagwira ntchito bwino pokhapokha ngati ali ndi unyolo wolondola wa RNA wopangidwa ndi Joyce ndi Lincoln.
Kwa asayansi ambiri omwe amakayikira lingaliro la "RNA World", kulephera kudzipindulitsanso kwa RNA ndiye chifukwa chachikulu chokayikira. RNA chabe siyimagwirizana ndi zomwe wopanga amakhala ndi moyo nthawi zonse.
Akatswiri opanga RNA kuyambira pachiwonetsero samawonjezera chiyembekezo. Ngakhale RNA ndi molekyulu yosavuta kuposa DNA, kupangidwa kwake kwakhala vuto lalikulu.
Maselo oyamba nthawi zambiri amakhala ochulukitsa.
Vutoli ndi shuga
Zonse ndi za shuga zomwe zimapezeka mu nyukiliya iliyonse ndi m'munsi mwa nucleotide.Ndizotheka kuwapanga payokha, koma sikungatheke kuti muziwaphatikiza.
Pofika kuchiyambiyambi kwa ma 90s, vutoli lidadziwika kale. Adawatsimikizira akatswiri ambiri kuti "RNA World" lingaliro, ngakhale lingawonekere bwanji, limangokhala lingaliro chabe.
- Mwinanso molekyulu ina yoyambirira idalipo pa Earth yoyamba: inali yosavuta kuposa RNA ndipo inatha kusonkhana kuchokera ku "msuzi woyamba" kenako pambuyo pake kuti iyambe kudzipanga.
- Mwina molekyulu iyi inali yoyamba, ndipo itatha RNA, DNA ndi ena.
Polyamide Nucleic Acid (PNA)
Mu 1991, a Peter Nielsen a ku Yunivesite ya Copenhagen ku Denmark akuwoneka kuti apeza munthu woyenera kukhala mmeneli woyimira.
M'malo mwake, idasintha mtundu wa DNA. Nielsen adasiya maziko osasinthika - muyezo A, T, C, ndi G - koma m'malo mogwiritsa ntchito mamolekyulu a shuga, adagwiritsa ntchito mamolekyulu otchedwa polyamides.
Anatchulako molekyulu yoyipayo ndi polyamide nucleic acid, kapena PNA. Komabe, pakupita nthawi, kusindikiza kwa chidule pazifukwa zina adasandulika kukhala "peptide nucleic acid".
Mwachilengedwe, PNA sikupezeka. Koma machitidwe ake amafanana kwambiri ndi machitidwe a DNA. Tcheni cha PNA chimatha kubwezeretsa unyolowo mu molekyulu ya DNA, ndi zotsekera monga mwa masiku onse. Kuphatikiza apo, PNA imatha kupindika kukhala helix iwiri, ngati DNA.
Stanley Miller anachita chidwi. Ndi kukayikira kwakukuru palingaliro la "RNA World", adakhulupirira kuti PNA ndiyoyenera kutengera gawo la chibadwa choyamba.
Mu 2000, adalimbikitsa malingaliro ake ndi umboni. Pofika nthawi imeneyi anali atakwanitsa zaka 70 ndipo anali atagwidwa mikwingwirima yambiri, kenako atakakhala ku malo osungirako anthu okalamba, koma sanasiye.
Miller adabwereza kuyesa kwake kwapamwamba komwe adafotokoza kale, nthawi ino pogwiritsa ntchito methane, nayitrogeni, ammonia ndi madzi, ndipo pamapeto pake adapeza polyamide base ya PNA.
Kuchokera pamenepa zidatsatila kuti pa Earth choyambirira pakhoza kukhala zinthu zina zofunika kuwoneka za PNA, mosiyana ndi RNA.
Khalidwe la PNA limafanana ndi DNA.
Treose nucleic acid (TNC)
Pakadali pano, akatswiri ena amisiri adapanga awo ma nikic acid.
Mu 2000, Albert Eschenmozer adapanga threose-nucleic acid (TNC).
M'malo mwake, anali yemweyo DNA, koma ndi mtundu wina wa shuga pamunsi. Maunyolo a TNC amatha kupanga helix wapawiri, ndipo chidziwitso chikhoza kusamutsidwa kuchokera ku RNA kupita ku TNCs mosinthanitsa.
Kuphatikiza apo, ma TNC amatha kupanga mitundu yovuta, kuphatikiza mawonekedwe a puloteni. Izi zidalemba kuti ma TNC amatha kukhala enzyme, ngati RNA.
Glycol Nucleic Acid (GNA)
Mu 2005, Eric Megger adapanga glycol nucleic acid, wokhoza kupanga helix.
Iliyonse ya ma nikic acid omwe anali ndi othandizira awo: nthawi zambiri iwo omwe amapanga asidiwo.
Koma m'chilengedwe kunalibe ma acid okhala ndi ma nucleic, kotero poganiza kuti adagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi moyo wawo woyamba, panthawi inayake amayenera kuti adawasiya mokomera RNA ndi DNA.
Zikumveka kukhala zowoneka bwino, koma osathandizidwa ndi umboni.
Linali lingaliro labwino, koma ...
Chifukwa chake, pofika zaka za zana loyamba la zaka za zana la 21, anthu ochirikiza lingaliro la RNA World adapezeka ali onyentchera.
Kumbali imodzi, ma enzyme a RNA analipo m'chilengedwe ndipo anaphatikiza chimodzi mwazida zofunikira kwambiri mwachilengedwe - nthiti. Si zoyipa.
Koma, kumbali inayo, palibe RNA yodzipangira yokha yomwe idapezeka mwachilengedwe, ndipo palibe amene adatha kufotokoza momwe RNA idapangidwira "msuzi woyamba". Zotsirizazi zitha kufotokozedwa ndi mitundu ina ya ma nikic acid, koma ngakhale mwachilengedwe kale (kapena sizinakhalepo) zidakhalapo. Izi ndizoyipa.
Kuwona kwa lingaliro lonse la "RNA World" kunali kwodziwikiratu: lingaliro ndi labwino, koma osati lotopetsa.
Pakalipano, kuyambira zaka za m'ma 80s, malingaliro ena anali kuyamba pang'onopang'ono. Omuthandizira ake adati moyo sunayambirepo RNA, DNA, kapena chibadwa china chilichonse.Malingaliro awo, moyo unabadwa ngati njira yogwiritsira ntchito mphamvu.
Mphamvu yoyamba?
Chifukwa chake, pazaka zambiri, asayansi omwe adachita nawo chiyambi cha moyo agawika m'misasa 3.
Oimira oyamba anali otsimikiza kuti moyo unayamba ndi molekyu ya RNA, koma sanathe kudziwa momwe mamolekyu a RNA kapena ma RNA ofananawo adakwanitsira kudzipanga okha padziko lapansi ndikuyamba kudzipatsanso. Kupambana kwa asayansi poyamba kunakondweretsa, koma pamapeto pake, ofufuza adayima. Komabe, ngakhale pamene maphunziro awa anali atasinthiratu, panali ena omwe anali otsimikiza kale kuti moyo udabadwa mosiyana ndi ena.
Chiphunzitso cha "World RNA" ndichokhazikitsidwa pa lingaliro losavuta: ntchito yofunikira kwambiri ya thupi ndiyo kubereka. Akatswiri azachilengedwe ambiri amavomereza izi. Zamoyo zonse, kuyambira mabakiteriya mpaka mauna obiriwira, zimakonda kusiya ana.
Komabe, ofufuza ambiri pankhaniyi savomereza kuti kubereka kumabwera kaye. Amati kuti kubereka kusanayambike, thupi limayenera kudzikwanira. Amayenera kukhala ndi moyo mwa iye yekha. Mapeto ake, simudzatha kukhala ndi ana ngati mumwalira izi zisanachitike.
Timalimbikitsa moyo kudzera mu chakudya, pomwe mbewu zimapeza mphamvu kuchokera ku dzuwa.
Inde, munthu yemwe amasangalala kudya chophika chaiwisi momveka bwino samawoneka ngati thundu la zaka zana limodzi, koma kwenikweni onsewa amatenga mphamvu.
Kuyamwa mphamvu ndiye maziko a moyo.
Kupenda
Polankhula za mphamvu ya zinthu zamoyo, tikuthana ndi metabolism.
- Gawo loyamba ndikupeza mphamvu, mwachitsanzo, kuchokera kuzinthu zokhala ndi mphamvu (mwachitsanzo, shuga).
- Chachiwiri ndikugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu kumanga maselo athanzi mthupi.
Njira yogwiritsira ntchito mphamvu ndiyofunikira kwambiri, ndipo ofufuza ambiri akutsimikiza kuti ndiamene adakhala chomwe moyo udayamba.
Koma kodi zolengedwa zimawoneka bwanji ndi ntchito ya metabolic yokha?
Lingaliro loyamba komanso lotchuka kwambiri lidayikidwa patsogolo ndi Gunther Wachtershauser chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 20. Mwaukadaulo, anali loya waumwini, koma anali ndi chidziwitso chabwino pankhani zamapangidwe.
Wachtershauzer ananena kuti zolengedwa zoyambayo "zinali zosiyana kwambiri ndi zonse zomwe timadziwa." Sanakhale ndi maselo. Iwo analibe ma enzymes, DNA kapena RNA.
Pofuna kumveketsa, Wachtershauser adalongosola kutuluka kwa madzi otentha otuluka kuchokera kumapiri. Madziwo anali odzaza ndi mipweya ya volcano monga ammonia ndipo inali ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono ta mchere tomwe timachokera mkati mwa phirilo.
M'malo omwe mtsinjewo umayenda pamwamba pa miyala, kusintha kwa mankhwala kunayamba. Zitsulo zomwe zimakhala m'madzi zidathandizira kuti pakapangike michere yayikulu kuchokera ku zosavuta.
Kuzungulira kwa metabolism
Kusintha kunali kupangika kwa kayendedwe ka metabolic koyamba.
Panthawi imeneyi, mankhwala amodzi amapanga ena angapo, ndi zina zotero, mpaka pamapeto pake zonse zimakonzanso chinthu choyamba.
Pakati pa njirayi, dongosolo lonse lomwe limakhudzidwa ndi metabolism limadziunjikira mphamvu, yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito kuyambiranso kuzungulira kapena kuyambitsa njira yatsopano.
Zozungulira za satanaiki, ngakhale ali ndi "makina", ndizofunikira kwambiri pamoyo.
China chilichonse chomwe zinthu zamakono zimapangidwa ndi (DNA, maselo, ubongo) zimawonekera pambuyo pake, pamaziko azinthu izi zamagetsi.
Zozungulira zama metabolism sizofanana kwambiri ndi moyo. Chifukwa chake, Wachtershauser adatcha zoyambitsa zake "zolengedwa zam'mbuyomu" ndipo adalemba kuti "sizingatchulidwe kuti ndizamoyo."
Koma zophatikizika zama metabolic zofotokozedwa ndi Wachtershauser nthawi zonse zimayima pakatikati pa chamoyo chilichonse.
Maselo anu ndi mbewu zazing'ono kwambiri zomwe nthawi zambiri zimaphwanya zinthu zina, kuzisandutsa zina.
Zozungulira za satanaiki, ngakhale ali ndi "makina", ndizofunikira kwambiri pamoyo.
Kwazaka makumi awiri zapitazi za zaka za zana la 20 lino, Wachtershauser adagwiritsa ntchito chiphunzitso chake, kumveketsa tsatanetsatane.Adafotokozeranso kuti ndi mchere uti womwe ungakhale wabwinoko kuposa ena komanso kuti ndi zinthu ziti zomwe zimachitika. Maganizo ake adayamba kupeza othandizira.
Umboni wotsimikizira
Koma nkhaniyi sinapitilire pazongowonera. Woyang'anira amafunikira kuti apeze chinthu china chomwe chingatsimikizire kuti zomwe amakhulupirira. Mwamwayi, zidachitidwa kale zaka khumi zapitazo.
Mu 1977, gulu la a Jack Corliss ochokera ku Yunivesite ya Oregon adalowa kum'mawa kwa Pacific Ocean mpaka pamtunda wa ma kilomita 2.5 (1.5 miles). Asayansi adaphunzira kasupe wotentha wa Galapagos pamalo pomwe mapiri adakwera kuchokera pansi. Zitikomo zimadziwika kuti poyamba zimachita kuphulika.
Corliss adazindikira kuti mzerewo udali ndi akasupe otentha. Madzi otentha ndi odzaza ndi makeke ankatuluka pansi pamadzi ndipo amatuluka kudzera m'miyala.
Modabwitsa, "ma hydrothermal vents" awa adadzaza anthu ndi zolengedwa zachilendo. Awa anali zikuluzikulu zazikulu zamitundu ingapo, malemu ndi ma eyeloni.
Madzi analinso odzala ndi mabakiteriya. Zamoyo zonsezi zimakhala ndi mphamvu kuchokera ku ma hydrothermal vents.
Kutsegulidwa kwa ma hydrothermal vents kwapangitsa Corliss kukhala ndi mbiri yabwino. Zinamupangitsanso kuganiza.
Madzi otentha am'madzi mu nyanja amapereka moyo wa zinthu zamasiku ano. Mwina adakhala magwero ake?
Hydrothermal vents
Mu 1981, a Jack Corliss adanenanso kuti zinthu zoterezi zidalipo padziko lapansi zaka 4 biliyoni zapitazo, ndipo zidawazungulira pomwe moyo udabadwa. Anadzipereka ntchito yonse yopanga lingaliro ili.
Corliss adanenanso kuti ma hydrothermal vents amatha kupanga mankhwala osakanikirana. Ankati chilichonse, chinali mtundu wa atomizer "msuzi woyamba".
- Madzi otentha akamayenda m'miyala, kutentha ndi kukakamiza kunapangitsa kuti mitundu yosavuta yachilengedwe isinthe kukhala yovuta kwambiri monga amino acid, nucleotides ndi shuga.
- Pafupi ndi njira yotuluka kupita kunyanja, kumene madzi sanathenso kutentha, anayamba kupanga maunyolo, kupanga ma carbohydrate, mapuloteni ndi ma nucleotides ngati DNA.
- Ndiye, kale munyanja momwe, momwe madzi adakhazikika kwambiri, mamolekyuwo adasonkhana m'maselo osavuta.
Chikaliracho chinamveka chanzeru komanso chidakopa chidwi.
Koma a Stanley Miller, omwe mayesowa adakambirana kale, sanachite nawo chidwi. Mu 1988, adalemba kuti ma vents ake anali otentha kwambiri kuti sangapangemo.
Chiphunzitso cha Corliss chinali chakuti kutentha kwambiri kumatha kuyambitsa kupangika kwa zinthu ngati ma amino acid, koma zoyesa za Miller zidawonetsa kuti atha kuziwononganso.
Zopangira zazikulu ngati shuga zimatha kukhala masekondi angapo.
Kuphatikiza apo, mamolekyu osavuta amenewo sangathe kupanga maunyolo, chifukwa madzi ozungulira amatha kuwaswa nthawi yomweyo.
Kutentha, ngakhale kotentha…
Pakadali pano, katswiri wa zamagetsi Mike Russell adalowa nawo zokambirana. Amakhulupirira kuti chiphunzitso chamawu chimagwirizana bwino ndi malingaliro a Wachtershauser okhudzana ndi zinthu zam'mbuyomu. Malingaliro awa adamupangitsa kuti apange chimodzi mwa malingaliro odziwika kwambiri okhudza momwe moyo udachokera.
Unyamata wa Russell udapitilira kupangidwa kwa aspirin komanso kuphunzira miyala yamtengo wapatali. Ndipo pakuphulika kwa volcano mu 60s, adakwanitsa kukonza njira yoyankhira, osadziwa kumbuyo kwake. Koma anali ndi chidwi chowerenga momwe mawonekedwe a Dziko lapansi adasinthira m'malo osiyanasiyana. Mwayi wakuyang'ana m'mbiri kuchokera m'malingaliro a katswiri wa geologist adapanga chiphunzitso chake cha moyo.
Mu 80s, adapeza mbuto zosonyeza kuti kalelo kudali ma venti ama hydrothermal, pomwe kutentha kudalibe kupitirira ma degree 150. Kutentha kochepa kumeneku, adatinso, kumathandizira kuti mamolekyulu azikhala nthawi yayitali kuposa momwe Miller amaganizira.
Kuphatikiza apo, china chosangalatsa chinapezeka mu zinthu zakale zamafuta otentha ano.Maminolo otchedwa pyrite, okhala ndi chitsulo ndi sulufule, okhala ndi machubu a 1 mm kutalika.
Mu labotale yake, a Russell adazindikira kuti pyrite imapanganso madontho ozungulira. Adanenanso kuti mamolekyulu oyambilira opanga organic amapanga ndendende mkati mwa zida za pyrite.
Nthawi yomweyo, Wachttershauser adayamba kufalitsa zikhulupiriro zake potengera kuti madzi omwe amakhala ndi mafuta ambiri amaphatikizika ndi mchere wina. Adanenanso kuti pyrite ikhoza kukhala mchere.
Russell amangowonjezera 2 ndi 2.
Adavomereza kuti mkati mwa mafunde ofunda a hydrothermal mu nyanja yakuya, momwe zida za pyrite zikadatha kupangika, zamoyo za Wachtershauser zimapangika. Ngati Russell sanalakwitse, ndiye kuti moyo unayambira kunyanja, ndikuyambira metabolism.
Zonsezi zinafotokozedwa munkhani yomwe a Russell, adasindikiza mu 1993, zaka 40 pambuyo poti Miller ayesetse.
Kuyambiranso kwa atolankhani sikunakhale kocheperako, koma kufunikira kwa zomwe zapezazi sikukulepheretsa izi. Russell adaphatikiza malingaliro awiri osiyanasiyana (Wachtershauzer metabolic cyges ndi ma Corliss hydrothermal vents) kukhala lingaliro limodzi lokhazikika.
Lingaliroli lidayamba kukhala losangalatsa kwambiri pomwe Russell adagawana malingaliro ake a momwe zolengedwa zoyambirira zimapezera mphamvu. Mwanjira ina, adafotokozera momwe metabolism awo amatha kugwira ntchito. Malingaliro ake adakhazikitsidwa ndi ntchito ya imodzi mwazidziwitso zoiwalika za sayansi yamakono.
Kuyesa "kopusa" Mitchell
Mu 60s, wasayansi wazachilengedwe Peter Mitchell adakakamizidwa kuchoka ku Yunivesite ya Edinburgh chifukwa cha matenda.
Adasinthiratu nyumbayi ku Cornwall kukhala labotale yokhayokha. Popeza kuti anali atasiyidwa pantchito zasayansi, adapereka ndalama zogwirira ntchito yake pogulitsa mkaka wa ng'ombe zazikazi. Akatswiri ambiri azamankhwala, kuphatikiza a Leslie Orgel, omwe maphunziro a RNA adakambidwapo koyambirira, adawona kuti ntchito ya Mitchell ndiyopusa kwambiri.
Pafupifupi zaka makumi awiri pambuyo pake, Mitchell adapambana atalandira mphotho ya Nobel mu Chemistry mu 1978. Sanatchuke, koma malingaliro ake angatengeredwe mu buku lililonse la biology.
Mitchell anadzipereka pamoyo wake kuphunzira momwe zolengedwa zimagwiritsira ntchito mphamvu kuchokera ku chakudya. Mwanjira ina, anali ndi chidwi ndi momwe timapulumukira kuchokera lachiwiri mpaka lachiwiri.
Katswiri wazopeka wa ku Britain Peter Mitchell adalandira Mphotho ya Nobel mu Chemistry chifukwa cha ntchito yake yopeza mapangidwe a kapangidwe ka ATP.
Momwe thupi limasungira mphamvu
Mitchell amadziwa kuti maselo onse amasunga mphamvu mu molekyu inayake - adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Chofunikira ndichakuti unyolo wamitundu itatu ya phosphates umalumikizidwa ndi adenosine. Kuphatikiza kwa phosphate yachitatu kumatenga mphamvu zambiri, zomwe pambuyo pake zimagona ku ATP.
Selo ikasowa mphamvu (mwachitsanzo, ndi kufinya kwa minofu), imadula phosphate wachitatu kuchokera ku ATP. Izi zimasinthira ATP kukhala adenosidiphosphate (ADP) ndikutulutsa mphamvu zosungidwa.
Mitchell amafuna kuti amvetsetse momwe maselo amayambira kukhazikitsa ATP. Kodi adalimbikira motani mphamvu zokwanira mu ADP kuti alowe nawo phosphate wachitatu?
Mitchell amadziwa kuti ma enzyme omwe amapanga ATP ali pa nembanemba. Ananenetsa kuti mapampu amselo amayitanitsa tinthu timene timatchedwa protoni kudzera mu umuna, motero pali mapuloteni ambiri mbali imodzi, pomwe pafupifupi palibe mbali inayo.
Kenako mapuloteni amayesa kubwerera ku nembanemba kuti azikhala ndi mbali zonse, koma amangolowa mu enzyme. Kutuluka kwa mapulotoni obalalitsa kumapatsanso enzyme mphamvu yofunikira kuti ipange ATP.
Mitchell adayamba kufotokoza izi mu 1961. Kwa zaka 15 zotsatira, adateteza malingaliro ake kuti asatsutsidwe, ngakhale adapeza umboni wosatsutsika.
Lero ndikudziwika kuti njira yomwe Mitchell akufotokozera ndi yokhudza cholengedwa chilichonse padziko lapansi. Zikuchitika m'maselo anu pompano. Monga DNA, ichi ndi gawo lofunikira la moyo lomwe timalidziwa.
Catharheus
Catharheon aeon (wachi Greek wakale"Zoyala -" zotsika kwambiri kuposa zakale "), zaka biliyoni 4.6-4 zapitazo, zimadziwika kuti gawo la kakulidwe ka dziko lapansi. Amaphimba theka loyambirira la Archean. Dziko lapansi panthawiyi linali thupi lozizira lomwe linali ndi zinthu zosawoneka bwino komanso lopanda magetsi. Mumkhalidwe wotere, palibe moyo womwe ukhoza kuwonekera.
Mlengalenga sikunali kowonda panthawi yamkati. Zimakhala ndi mipweya komanso mpweya wamadzi womwe unkawoneka pakulimbana kwa Dziko lapansi ndi asteroid.
Chifukwa choti mweziwo unali pafupi kwambiri (makilomita 3,000) ku Earth (equator - km 40,000), tsikulo silinatenge nthawi yayitali - maola 6 okha. Koma, mwezi utachepa, tsiku lidayamba kukulira.
Proterozoic Aeon (zaka 2,5 biliyoni - 543 miliyoni zapitazo)
Proterozoic (Greek πρότερος - woyamba, wakale kwambiri, Greek ζωή - moyo) amadziwika ndi kutuluka kwazomera zovuta, bowa ndi nyama (mwachitsanzo, masiponji). Moyo kumayambiriro kwa Praterozoic anali adakali wolowerera kunyanja, popeza mikhalidwe padziko sinali yabwino kwenikweni: mlengalenga munalinso hydrogen sulfide, CO2, N2, CH4, ndi zochepa kwambiri za O2.
Komabe, mabakiteriya omwe amakhala m'madzi nthawi imeneyo anayamba kupanga O2 monga chogulitsa, ndipo zaka 2 biliyoni zapitazo, kuchuluka kwa mpweya anali atafika kale mokhazikika. Koma kuchuluka kowonjezereka kwa mpweya m'mlengalenga kunayambitsa ngozi ya oxygen, zomwe zinapangitsa kusintha kwa ziwalo zopumira zomwe zinakhala munyanja nthawi imeneyo (anaerobic zina zidasinthidwa ndi aerobic) ndikusintha kapangidwe kazinthu zakuthambo (mapangidwe a ozone wosanjikiza). Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa kutentha kwa dziko lapansi, kuwonekera kwa Huron kwa nthawi yayitali kunachitika: kutentha kunatsika mpaka −40 ° С.
Zinthu zina zakale zoyambirira zamitundu mitundu zimapezeka pambuyo pang'onopang'ono. Panthawiyo, nyanja zam'madzi zomwe zimakhala ndi nyama monga spriggin (Spriggina) - Zinyama zooneka ngati nyongolotsi zomwe zinali ndi mutu kumbuyo ndi kumbuyo. Nyama zoterezi mwina zakhala makolo a nyama zamakono.
Paleoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic - nthawi ya geological, gawo la Proterozoic, yomwe idayamba zaka 2,5 biliyoni zapitazo ndikutha zaka biliyoni 1.6 zapitazo. Pakadali pano, kukhazikika koyamba kwa ma kontrakti. Cyanobacteria, mtundu wa mabakiteriya omwe amagwiritsa ntchito mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya photosynthesis kuti apange mphamvu ndi mpweya, nawonso adatulukiranso panthawiyi.
Chochitika chofunikira kwambiri cha Paleoproterozoic choyambirira ndi ngozi ya oxygen. Asanakhale kuwonjezereka kwa mpweya mu mlengalenga, pafupifupi mitundu yonse ya moyo yomwe ilipo inali anaerobes, ndiye kuti, metabolism m'mitundu yamoyo idalira mitundu ya kupuma ma cell, komwe sikunafunikire mpweya. Kupezeka kwa mpweya wambiri kumapangitsa kuti mabakiteriya ambiri azidziwika bwino, motero panthawiyi zinthu zambiri zapadziko lapansi zinasowa. Mitundu yotsalayi ya moyo inali yopezeka ndi oxidation ndi zotsatira zakupha za okosijeni, kapena kuthera moyo wawo m'malo opanda mpweya.
Neopraterozoic
NeopraterozoicChingerezi Neoproterozoic Era ndi nthawi ya geochronological (nthawi yomaliza ya Praterozoic), yomwe idayamba zaka miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo ndikutha zaka 542 miliyoni zapitazo.
Kuchokera pamalingaliro, momwe zimakhazikitsidwa ndi kuwonongeka kwa malo apamwamba kwambiri a Rodinia kukhala zidutswa zosachepera 8, pokhudzana ndi momwe nyanja yamakedzana yakale ya Mirovia imatha kukhalako. Panthawi ya cryogenesis, kuphuka kwakukulu kwapadziko lapansi kunachitika - ayezi adafika ku equator (Earth-snowball).
The neoproterozoic ya malemu (Ediacarius) imaphatikizanso zotsalira zakale za zinthu zamoyo, chifukwa inali panthawiyi pomwe mtundu wina wa zigoba zolimba kapena mafupa adayamba kupanga zinthu zamoyo.
Nthawi ya Cambrian (zaka 543-490 miliyoni zapitazo)
Munthawi ya Cambrian, zamoyo zamitundu mitundu zambiri zimawoneka modzidzimutsa - makolo a omwe akuyimira pakadali pano magulu azigawo zambiri zaufumu wa nyama (pamakedzedwe asanachitike ku Cambrian, zotsalira za zinthu zotere sizipezeka).Chochitika ichi, chosayembekezereka pamlingo wa geology, koma zenizeni zaka mamiliyoni ambiri, chimadziwika mu sayansi ngati kuphulika kwa Cambrian.
Zotsalira zakale za nyama za nthawi ya Cambrian zimapezeka nthawi zambiri padziko lonse lapansi. Kumayambiriro kwa nyengo yaku Cambrian (zaka pafupifupi 540 miliyoni zapitazo), diso lovuta limapangidwa m'magulu ena a nyama. Mawonekedwe ake anali gawo lalikulu la chisinthiko - zinyama zimatha kuwona dziko lozungulira. Chifukwa chake, ozunzidwa tsopano amatha kuwona osaka, ndipo osaka amatha kuwona owazunza.
Mu nthawi ya Cambrian, malo sanakhalepo pamtunda. Koma nyanja zinadzaza ndi ma invertebrates, mwachitsanzo, masiponji, ma trilobites, anomalocars. Nthawi ndi nthawi, malo akulu pansi pamadzi amakwirira malo okhala nyama zam'nyanja pansi pa matani a silt. Chifukwa cha kugwa kwa mapiriwo, titha kuwona m'maganizo momwe nyama zamkati mwa Cambrian zidalili, chifukwa ngakhale nyama zofewa zofewa zidasungidwa bwino mu siltali.
Nyanja zakumapeto kwa nthawi ya Cambrian, magulu akuluakulu a nyama anali arthropods, echinoderms, ndi mollusks. Koma wokhala munyanja zam'nyanja nthawi imeneyo anali cholengedwa chamtundu wotchedwa haikouihtis - adayamba kubisirana ndi maso ake.
Nthawi ya Ordovician (490-443 Ma apitawo)
Mu Ordovician, dziko silinakhaleko, kupatula ma lichens, omwe anali oyamba azomera kukhala pamtunda. Koma moyo wopambana unayamba kugwira ntchito mwamphamvu munyanja.
Omwe amakhala m'madzi am'madzi a Ordovician anali arthropods, monga megalograph. Amatha kupita kumtunda kukaikira mazira. Koma panali enanso okhala, mwachitsanzo, woimira gulu la orthoconus la cephalopod.
Nyama za vertebrate mu Ordovician sizinapangidwebe bwino. Otsatira a haikouihtis amasambira munyanja, yemwe anali ndi mawonekedwe ofanana ndi msana.
Komanso mu nyanja zam'masiku a Ordovician pamakhala oimira ma coelenterates, echinoderms, ma coral, sponges ndi ma invertebrates ena.
Nthawi ya Silurian (zaka 443-417 miliyoni zapitazo)
Zomera zina, mwachitsanzo, kuksonia (Coocsonia), womwe umakhala kutalika kosaposa 10 cm, ndi mitundu ina ya lichens, amapita kumtunda ku siluria. Mapapo ena a arthropod amapanga mapapu akale, kuwalola kupuma mpweya, mwachitsanzo, chinkhanira cha brontoscorpio chitha kukhala pamtunda kwa maola anayi [ gwero silinatchulidwe masiku 1968 ] .
Zaka mamiliyoni pambuyo pake, miyala ikuluikulu yamakoma imapangika m'madzi am'madzi, momwe crustaceans ndi brachopod anathawira. Munthawi imeneyi, ma arthropod amakula kwambiri, mwachitsanzo, portsgot ya racoscorpion imatha kutalika mamita 2.5, komabe, inali yayikulu kwambiri kuti ikhoza kugwera.
M'madzi a Silurian, pamapeto pake ma vertebrates amapezeka. Mosiyana ndi arthropods, ma vertebrates anali ndi chingwe cha mafupa, chomwe chinkawalola kuyenda bwino pansi pamadzi. Mwachitsanzo, ma vertebral cephalaspis, adapanganso ziwalo zamagetsi zomwe zimapanga mphamvu yapadera yamagalasi yomwe imapangitsa kuti imve chilengedwe. Cephalaspis adapanganso ubongo wakale, kulola kuti nyamayo ikumbukire zochitika zina.
Nthawi ya Dyona (zaka 417- 354 miliyoni zapitazo)
Ku Dhiboni, moyo umapitilirabe kugwira ntchito pamtunda komanso panyanja. Nkhalango zoyambirira zakale zimapezeka, zopangidwa kale kwambiri ngati mitengo yakale kwambiri yamakedzana (Archaeopteris), yomwe imakula makamaka m'mphepete mwa mitsinje ndi nyanja.
Moyo waukulu ku Dekaperi wa Dyone umayimiridwa makamaka ndi arthropods ndi centipedes, omwe amapuma gawo lonse la thupi ndikukhala m'malo otentha kwambiri. Komabe, pakutha kwa Devonia, ma arthropods akale anali ndi chipolopolo chosabisa, kuchuluka kwa magawo amthupi kunachepetsedwa, mbali zinayi za paws zinasanduka antennae ndi nsagwada, zina zinatulutsa mapiko.Chifukwa chake nthambi yatsopano ya chisinthiko inaoneka - tizilombo, tomwe timatha kudziwa bwino mbali zosiyanasiyana za dziko lapansi.
Pakati pa a Devoni, amphibians oyamba adayamba kuyenda pamtunda (mwachitsanzo, ginerpeton, ichthystega). Sakanatha kukhala kutali ndi madzi, popeza khungu lawo linali laling'ono kwambiri komanso losatetezedwa kuti lisaume. Komanso, amphibians amatha kubereka kokha mothandizidwa ndi madzi - mazira. Kunja kwa madzi, mbadwa za amphibian zitha kufa: dzuwa limawumitsa caviar, chifukwa satetezedwa ndi chipolopolo chilichonse kupatula filimu yopyapyala.
Nsomba zinayamba kugwira nsagwada, kuzilola kuti zigwire nyama yosambira mwachangu. Anayamba kuchuluka msanga. Nthawi ya Dyonia imadziwika ndi kuchulukitsa kwa nsomba zakale, makamaka, cartilaginous. Pakutha kwa Devoni, nsomba zoyamba za bony zidawonekera munyanja, monga gineria yayikulu kwambiri, yomwe idakankhira nsomba zamkati (makamaka, makolo a asodzi amakono) kumbuyo. Komabe, anthu ochulukirapo kwambiri pamadzi a Devonia anali oimira gulu la placoderm, monga Dunclesteus ndi Dinhis, omwe amatalika mita 8-10.
Nthawi ya Carboniferous (zaka 354-290 miliyoni zapitazo)
Mu nthawi ya Carboniferous, nyengo inali yotentha komanso yopanda chonde pafupifupi padziko lonse lapansi. M'nkhalango zowirira za nthawi imeneyo, makamaka mahatchi, ma fern ngati mitengo ndi ma lepidodendrons akuluakulu amakula, mpaka kutalika kwa mamitala 10 mpaka 35, ndi mpaka mita imodzi mulifupi.
Zinyama zimayimiriridwa ndi unyinji wa zolengedwa. Kuchuluka kwa kutentha, chinyezi ndi mpweya zimathandizira kukulira kukula kwa ma arthropod, mwachitsanzo, arthropleura imatha kutalika ndi mamitala 2.5, ndipo chinjoka chachikulu cha meganevra - 75 cm mu mapiko.
Zinthu zoterezi zidathandizira kuti akatswiri azachipembedzo. Iwo (mwachitsanzo, proterogyrinus) amakhala m'malo onse okhala m'mphepete mwa nyanja, pafupi kuti athetse zonse zomwe zimapuma komanso ma tasseteriformes. Mu nthawi ya Carboniferous, amphibians adapereka zochokera zoyambirira (ma sauropsid) ndi ma synapsid kapena kholo lawo wamba. Zolengedwa zoyambirirazo zinali nyama zochepa kwambiri zomwe zimafanana ndi abuluzi amakono, mwachitsanzo, kutalika kwa petrolacosaurus sikudutsa masentimita 40 kutalika. Amatha kuyikira mazira pamtunda - iyi inali njira yayikulu yosinthira, kuphatikiza, khungu lawo limatetezedwa ndi masikelo owonda omwe amateteza khungu la nyama kuti isume, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti amatha kuchoka kumadzi mosavuta. Kukhalapo kwa kusinthasintha kwa zinthu zotereku kumatsimikizira kupambana kwawoko monga nyama zapadziko lapansi.
Panalinso mitundu yambiri ya moyo munyanja za Carboniferous. Nsomba zam'mafupa (makolo a nsomba zamakono) zidayang'anira mzere wamadzi, ndipo matanthwe ambiri am'makona adadzaza nyanjazo, natalikirana makilomita ambiri m'mphepete mwa mayiko akale.
Mapeto a Carboniferous, pafupifupi zaka 290 miliyoni zapitazo, anali ndi zaka zazitali kwambiri za madzi oundana, zomwe zinatha kumayambiriro kwa Permian. Zovala zazing'onoting'ono zinali kuyandikira pang'onopang'ono ku equator kuchokera kumpoto ndi kumwera. Nyama ndi zomera zambiri sizinathe kuzolowera nyengo zamtunduwu ndipo posakhalitsa zinatha.
Nthawi yovomerezeka (290-248 Ma zapitazo)
Chifukwa cha kuzizira kwa madzi oundana kumapeto kwa Carboniferous mu nthawi ya Permian, nyengo idayamba kuzizira komanso kupukuta. Nkhalango zachilengedwe zotentha komanso malo osungirako malo ena m'malo mwa zipululu ndi malo owuma. Muzochitika zotere, mbewu zokha zomwe zimalimbikira kwambiri zimakula - ferns ndi ciferi wakale.
Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ma bogi, kuchuluka kwa amphibians kunachepa kwambiri, chifukwa amatha kumakhala pafupi ndi madzi okha (mwachitsanzo, amphibian-reptiliomorph seymuria). Malo amphibians adatengedwa ndi zolengedwa komanso ma synapsid, popeza anali atazolowera moyo wamtunda kouma. Ma Synapsids adayamba kukula mwachangu komanso kukula, adatha kufalikira kudera lonselo, adapereka nyama zazikulu zapadziko lapansi monga pelicosaurs (mwachitsanzo, dimetrodons ndi edaphosaurus). Chifukwa cha kuzizira, nyama izi zidapanga ngalawa yomwe idawathandiza kuwongolera matupi awo.
Mu nthawi ya Late Permian, malo amodzi apamwamba kwambiri - Pangea. M'malo omwe kuli kouma komanso kotentha, zipululu zowonjezereka zidayamba kukhazikika. Panthawi imeneyi, ma pelicosaurs adapereka ma therapid - makolo a zolengedwa zoyamwitsa. Amasiyana ndi makolo awo makamaka popeza anali ndi mano osiyana, chachiwiri, gululi linali ndi khungu losalala (potengera kusintha, masikelo awo sanakhazikike), chachitatu, oimira ena a gululi adapanga vibrissa ( ndipo pambuyo pake mkanjowo. Gulu la Therapsid linaphatikizapo onse omwe amadyera magazi (mwachitsanzo, gorgonops) ndi burrowing herbivores (mwachitsanzo, diktodon). Kuphatikiza pa terapsids, nthumwi za banja la pareiasaurus la subsass wokhala pamtunda unakhazikika pamtunda, mwachitsanzo, scutosaurus wokhala ndi mikono yayikulu. Ma archosaurs oyambirira amawonekeranso, monga archosaurus. Monga ma Therapids, zolengedwa izi zinkanyamula zikwangwani zingapo zomwe zinkapita patsogolo, makamaka, kuchuluka kwa kagayidwe (mpaka magazi ofunda).
Pakutha kwa nyengo ya Permian, nyengo idakhala youma kwambiri, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti malo am'mphepete mwa nyanja mukhale ndi masamba obiriwira komanso kuwonjezereka kwa madera. Zotsatira zake, chifukwa chakusowa kwa malo okhala, chakudya ndi mpweya womwe umapangidwa ndi zomera, mitundu yambiri ya zinyama ndi zomera zinatha. Chochitika chosinthachi chinatchedwa Remian misa kutha komwe 95% ya zinthu zonse zamoyo zinafa. Asayansi akadali kutsutsana pazomwe zidapangitsa izi kutha, ndikuyambanso malingaliro ena:
- Kugwa kwa meteorite amodzi kapena angapo kapena kuwundana kwa Dziko lapansi ndi asteroid yokhala ndi mainchesi angapo makilomita (chimodzi mwa umboni wa chiphunzitso ichi ndi kupezeka kwa khoma la kilomita 500 m'dera la Wilkes Earth,
- Kuchulukana kwa mapiri
- Kutulutsidwa mwadzidzidzi kwa methane kuchokera pansi pa nyanja,
- Kutuluka kwa misampha (basalts), woyamba wa Emmeishan wamisala zaka 260 miliyoni zapitazo, kenako Sibigaan wakuchuluka zaka 251 miliyoni zapitazo. Nyengo yozizira, kuphulika kwa mpweya chifukwa chakumasulidwa kwa mipweya yaphulika, komanso kusintha kwanyengo komwe kunakhudza chilengedwe kungalumikizidwe ndi izi.
Komabe, chisinthiko sichinayime pamenepo: patapita kanthawi, mitundu yamoyo ya zinthu zachilengedwe inayamba kukhala ndi mitundu yatsopano, yopanda tanthauzo.
Nthawi ya Mesozoic
Nthawi ya Mesozoic, zolengedwa zachilendo kwambiri padziko lapansi. Odziwika kwambiri aiwo ndi ma dinosaurs. Adawongolera zaka 160 miliyoni padziko lonse lapansi. Zinali zamiyeso yosiyanasiyana: kuyambira kakang'ono kwambiri kakang'ono kwambiri, komwe kanali kotalika masentimita 70 okha, mpaka kulemera kwamphona, mpaka kutalika kwa 50 metres ndi kulemera kwa matani 150. Koma, kupatula ma dinosaurs, nthawi imeneyo sizinalenso zachilengedwe zochuluka padziko lapansi. Zamoyo zomwe zimabwerako zimakhalanso mlengalenga ndi pamadzi. Panthawiyo Padziko Lapansi panali mitundu yayikulu yazamoyo yomwe inapitilira kusintha ndikuyenda bwino.
Nthawi ya Triassic (248-206 Ma zapitazo)
Kumayambiriro kwa nyengo ya Triassic, moyo padziko lapansi udapitilirabe kupulumuka pang'onopang'ono kuchuluka kwa mitundu kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Permian. Nyengo nyengo zambiri padziko lapansi kunali kotentha komanso kouma, koma kuchuluka kwa mvula kumatha kupereka mitundu yambiri yazomera. Zodziwika kwambiri mu Triassic zinali zakale zoyambira, ma fern ndi ginkgoids, zotsalira zomwe zimapezeka padziko lonse lapansi, kuphatikizapo zigawo zam'mapiri a Dziko Lapansi.
Nyama zomwe zidapulumuka chilolezo cha Regian kuzimiririka zidapezeka munyengo zabwino - zitatha izi, padalibe aliyense wopikisana ndi chakudya kapena nyama zazikulu padziko lapansi. Ngakhale kumapeto kwa nthawi ya Permian, ma archosauromorphs pang'onopang'ono anayamba kudziwikiratu. Zodzikongoletsa za Herbivorous zinayamba kukula kwambiri. Zomwezi zinachitikanso ndi zilombo zina.Posakhalitsa, nyama zambiri zidapereka mitundu yatsopano komanso yachilendo. Mu nthawi ya Triassic yoyambilira, zokwawa zina zidabweranso kudzakhala m'madzi, osazindikira komanso zolengedwa zina zam'madzi zomwe zidachokera kwa iwo.
Kumayambiriro kwa nyengo ya Triassic kunakhala mizimu ya makolo otchedwa dinosaurs, monga euparkeria. Mbali yodziwika bwino ya euparkeria kuchokera ku archosauromorphs ndikuti imatha kuyimirira ndikuthamanga miyendo yake yakumbuyo.
Nthawi yotsiriza ya Triassic (zaka 227-206 miliyoni zapitazo), zinthu zidachitika pa Dziko Lapansi zomwe zidakonzeratu kakulidwe ka moyo nthawi yonse yonse ya dinosaur. Kugawikana kwa chimphona chachikulu kwambiri cha Pangea kunapanga ma kontinenti angapo. Mpaka kumapeto kwa Triassic pamtunda, ma Therapids omalizira anali ofala, mwachitsanzo, ndi placerias ndi listrosaurus, komanso magulu ena angapo abwinobwino, omwe amaphatikizapo tanistrophy ndi proterochus. Koma munthawi yocheperako, kuchuluka kwa mankhwala othandizira kunachepa (kupatula gulu la ma cynodonts omwe amapatsa mwayi anyama). Repitilies - archosaurs adakhala m'malo awo, magulu atatuwo omwe adayamba kukhala wamphamvu. Magulu awa a nyama anali ma dinosaurs, mbalame (mwina zochokera ku dinosaurs), pterosaurs ndi crocodilomorphs. Zoyenera zam'madzi zimasinthidwa mwachangu: choyambirira ichthyosaurs ndi sauroterterigias.
Mapeto a nthawi ya Triassic anali chizindikiro cha kutheratu kwatsopano kwa mitundu ya nyama, zofanana ndi chochitika chofananira kumapeto kwa Permian. Zoyambitsa zake zimakhalabe chinsinsi. Panthawi ina, asayansi amati kudagwa kwa thambo lakuthambo - lapansi, lomwe linasiyitsa malo ena akuluakulu a Manikuagan (Canada) okhala ndi mulifupi wa 100 km, koma, monga zidachitika, izi zidachitika kale.
Nthawi ya Jurassic (zaka 206-144 miliyoni zapitazo)
Koyambilira kwa nthawi ya Jurassic (zaka 206-180 miliyoni zapitazo), nyengo padziko lapansi idakhala yotentha komanso yonyowa. Nkhalango zowongoka zidakwera zigawo, ndipo madera otentha anaphimbidwa ndi nkhondo za conifers, ferns ndi cypress. Momwe ma kontilakiti adasinthira pang'onopang'ono, nyengo yokhazikika yomwe idapangidwa m'malo ena otsika a dziko lapansi, mitsinje yayikulu idapangidwa ndimadzi nthawi zonse. Mu nthawi yoyambirira ya Jurassic, ma dinosaurs ndi pterosaurs amakula msanga, amakhala ochulukirapo komanso osiyanasiyana, ndikuyamba kufalikira padziko lonse lapansi. Zoyenera zam'madzi (ichthyosaurs ndi plesiosaurs), komanso ma mollusks (mwachitsanzo, ammonites) siziri kumbuyo kwawo.
Pakati ndi kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Jurassic (zaka 180 mpaka 144 miliyoni zapitazo), nyengo m'malo otentha a dziko lapansi idakhala youma. Mwina kusintha kwa nyengo inali chifukwa chomwe madinosa ambiri adayamba kusintha mwachangu kukhala zimphona zenizeni. Pakati pa ma dinosaurs a herbivorous - sauropods - mwachitsanzo, diplodocus, brachiosaurus ndi zina zazikulu zolemera, komanso pakati pa olusa - adapanga theropods - monga allosaurus yayikulu. Koma oimira magulu ena a a dinosaur (mwachitsanzo, stegosaurs ndi otnieliah) nawonso amayendayenda pamtunda. Kuphatikiza pa ma dinosaurs, crocodilomorphs apadziko lapansi anali otchuka pamtunda - osaka komanso ofunda wamagazi okhathamira (ngakhale mitundu ingapo yamitundu yodziwika bwino kapena yowopsa), adakhala ndi zochulukirapo zachilengedwe. Mapiko a mapiko a mapiko amaimiridwa ndi mitundu yonse yodya nsomba (mwachitsanzo, ramforinh) ndi nyama zazing'ono zopanda chitetezo (mwachitsanzo, anurognathus).
Madzi ofunda a Jurassic adadzaza ndi plankton, omwe adakhala ngati forage ya lidsichtis ndi nsomba zina zazikulu. Pessatory plesiosaurs adayimilidwa ndi mitundu yayitali-yam'madzi yomwe imadya nsomba, ndi ma pliosaurids okhala ndi mafupika omwe amagwira ntchito pa nyama zazikulu; munyanja zosaya, nyama zam'madzi zam'madzi (monga, metriorinchs) zimasakidwa, zomwe zinali zosiyana kwambiri ndi ming'alu yathu yanthawi zonse.
Nthawi yovuta (zaka 144-66 miliyoni zapitazo)
Mu nthawi ya Cretaceous, nyengo padziko lapansi idakhala yotentha, chifukwa chamvula yamvula yamnyengo pafupifupi padziko lonse lapansi - kuyambira ku equator mpaka zigawo zamkati - idakutidwa ndi masamba obiriwira. Chakumapeto kwa nthawi ya Jurassic, zachilengedwe masiku ano zamaluwa (angiosperms) zidatulukira, ndipo nthawi ya Cretaceous idayamba kukhala imodzi mwa magulu azomera padziko lapansi. Pamapeto pa Cretaceous, maluwa okhala ndi ma cifine ambiri, ma fern ndi ma cycad m'zigawo zambiri, akulengeza mwamphamvu zaufulu wawo wokhala nawo malo azomera, omwe adzakhazikitsa mu nthawi ya Cenozoic.
Zotsatira zakupitilizika kopitiliza kwa ma kontrakitala, zovuta zatsopano, nyanja zam'madzi ndi nyanja zamchere zidapangidwa zomwe zimalepheretsa kuyenda kwaulere kwa nyama padziko lapansi. Pang'onopang'ono pamakondwerero adayamba kuwoneka amitundu yawo yazomera ndi nyama.
Nthawi ya Cretaceous, monga nthawi ya Jurassic isanachitike, inali nthawi ya zimphona zenizeni. Sitanosaurs a sauropods amakhala ku South ndi North America - imodzi mwa nyama zolemera kwambiri zomwe zidakhalako Padziko Lapansi. Anasakidwa ndi adani monga Mapusaurs ndi Acrocanthosaurus. Ku North America, chakumapeto kwa Cretaceous, nyama zamtunduwu zidalowedwa m'malo ndi ma tertannosaurids opatsa chidwi komanso ma ceratops okhala ndi nyanga. Mwambiri, ma dinosaurs adapitiliza kusinthika ndikukhala akatswiri. Mammals (mwachitsanzo, didlphodone) sanakhale ndi gawo lofunikira m'moyo wa dziko lapansi, amakhalabe nyama zazing'ono, koma kuchuluka kwawo (makamaka kumapeto kwa nthawi ya Cretaceous) kunayamba kuchuluka kwambiri.
Kusintha kwakukulu kwachitika munyanja. Olamulira awo akale (ichthyosaurs ndi pliosaurs) adakhumudwitsidwa, ndipo a Mosasaurs adatenga malo - gulu latsopano la zimbudzi zazikulu zapamadzi, mwachitsanzo, platecarpus ndi tylosaurus.
Kukula kwa ma dinosaurs mapiko a pterosaurs kwawonjezeka. Ornithoheyrus, pteranodon ndi ma pterosaurs ena akuluakulu anayenda maulendo ataliatali kudzera mumlengalenga ndipo mwina, mwina anawuluka kuchokera ku kontrakitala kupita kontrakitala. Mbalame zoyambirira zimakutidwa mlengalenga (mwachitsanzo, Iberomezornis), mbalame zina zam'nyanja (monga Hesperornis) sizimadziwa kuwuluka, koma zinali ndi mawonekedwe owoneka bwino.
Mapeto a nthawi ya Cretaceous (pafupifupi zaka miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo) adawonetsedwa ndi kuchuluka kwatsopano kwa mitundu komwe kunaseseratu pafupifupi 40% ya mabanja onse azinyama omwe analipo panthawiyo. Ma Pterosaurs, ammonites, ndi maasaasa nawonso anazimiririka, koma odziwika odziwika bwino ndi tsokali,, anali, osagulitsa nyama. Mopepuka anachira pamayesowa, ndi magulu ena ambiri azamoyo.
Funso la zomwe zimapangitsa kuchulukitsa kwa mitundu kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Cretaceous lidzutsabe mikangano pakati pa asayansi. Nazi mitundu ingapo yomwe imapeza othandizira kwambiri:
1) Chiphunzitso chakuwombana kwa Dziko lapansi ndi chimwala chachikulu chimakhala ndi othandizira kwambiri (ndi umboni). Mkanganowu unachitika kudera la Yucatan Peninsula ku Gulf of Mexico. Meteorite anali ndi mainchesi pafupifupi 10 km (kutalika kwake kunali kwakukulu kwambiri kuti pomwe gawo limodzi limakhudza madzi mu dziwe, linalo lidalinso kumtunda kwamlengalenga), ndipo itagwa crater yokhala ndi mainchesi 160 km idapangidwa. Komabe, si asayansi onse omwe amakhulupirira kuti ngakhale kugunda kwamphamvu kotereku kumatha kuwononga mitundu yambiri ya nyama munthawi yochepa chonchi.
2) Asayansi ena amathandizira lingaliro lakusuntha kwamatenda: chifukwa cha kugwa kwamadzi zaka 700 miliyoni zapitazo, maulendo ena kuchokera kumtunda kupita kumtunda adapangidwa. Nyama zinayamba kuchoka kumtunda kupita kumtunda, ndipo ndimatenda awo, matenda. Popeza chitetezo chazinyama kuchokera ku kontinenti imodzi sichimasinthidwa kukhala matenda ndi majeremusi kuchokera kwina, ngakhale matenda osapweteka a nyama, mwachitsanzo, ochokera ku Asia, amatha kupha nyama, mwachitsanzo, kuchokera ku America. Chifukwa cha izi, miliri yayikulu idayamba.Zomera zam'madzi zinasamukira ku Asia, mwachitsanzo, ndi esinococci adasamukira ku America. Koma, kachiwiri, kuthekera kwa kutha kwa mitundu yambiri ya zinyama chifukwa chakusamukira kwa majeremusi ndizochepa kwambiri - posachedwa nyamazo zimasinthana ndi matenda.
3) Mwinanso, kutha kwa Cretaceous - Paleogene kumalumikizidwa ndi kuchuluka kwa ntchito zamapiri. Kuphulika kwakukulu kunachitika m'malo angapo padziko lonse lapansi zaka miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo. Mwachitsanzo, mapiri amphamvu amaphulika, kuchokera kumapiri akuluakulu a Hindustan. Madzi otuluka ku Lava adawononga nyama zonse ndi malo awo m'njira. Mafuta oopsa akuthawa m'mapiri ophulika anali oopsa kwambiri. Ana osokoneza bongo omwe adalipo nthawi imeneyo anali kufa nawo, ndipo nyama zokulirapo zikukula.
4) Dziko lathuli limayenda mlengalenga ndi mlalang'amba wa Milky Way. Pali chiphunzitso chakuti Dziko lapansi ndi mapulaneti ake amazungulira nthawi ndi nthawi amagwera mumlengalenga, pomwe pali meteorites zazing'ono komanso zazikulu. Mwina zaka 700 miliyoni zapitazo zomwe zofananazi zidachitika, kenako ziwonetsero zazikulu zakuya zidagunda Padziko Lapansi. Ma meteorites ena anali akulu kwambiri kotero kuti sanatenthe mumlengalenga ndikugunda Padziko Lapansi. Komabe, akatswiri a ma paleont amawona kuti izi sizingachitike.
5) Asayansi ena amakhulupirira kuti supernova idaphulika zaka 66 miliyoni zapitazo patali ndi zaka pafupifupi 200-300 kuchokera ku Earth. Nyenyezi zotere zimadziunjikira mphamvu zambiri mwa izo zokha, osalimbana ndi kupsinjika kwawo, zimaphulika. Mphamvu kuchokera kuphulika imatha kufalikira zaka mazana owala. Chifukwa chake, panthawi ya kuphulikako, kunali kuphulika kwamphamvu kotero kuti adawotcha ozoni m'mlengalenga wa Dziko lapansi. Pambuyo pa izi, kunalibenso zopinga zina pazowononga dzuwa, ndipo zinayamba kukhudza maselo a zomera ndi nyama.
6) Akatswiri ambiri a paleontologists amakhulupiriranso kuti palibe mwamaganizidwe aliwonse omwe ali pamwambawa omwe angafotokozere zaimfa zamitundu yambiri yazamoyo. Amakhulupirira kuti palimodzi ndi masoka onsewa ndi omwe angapeze mphamvu zokwanira kupangitsa kuti mitundu ya nyama itheretu: choyamba, kuphulika kwamapulaneti padziko lapansi kunachuluka, zomwe zingayambitse kutsika kwamadzi, zomwe zinayambitsa miliri yayikulu, kenako supernova inayiphulika pafupi ndi mlalang'amba wathu, chifukwa cha zomwe zigawo za ozone zinawotchedwa, ndipo kenako Dziko Lapansi lidagwa m'dera lalikulu kwambiri la meteorites ndipo lidagundana kwambiri ndi ochepa kenako, imodzi yayikulu, yomwe idatsogolera kutha kwa ma dinosaurs ndi ena ambiri nyama.
Pali malingaliro ena okhudza kufalikira kwa Cretaceous - Paleogene, koma amathandizidwa ndi asayansi ochepa kwambiri.
Komabe, mwina, momwe zingakhalire, zaka 66 miliyoni zapitazo, nyengo ya Cenozoic, "m'badwo wa zinyama," idalowa m'malo mwa Mesozoic yomwe inamalizidwa mwadzidzidzi - "m'badwo wobwerera".
Nthawi ya Cenozoic
Kutha kwa mitundu ya zinthu zaka mamiliyoni 66 zapitazo kunali chiyambi cha nyengo yatsopano, yosasintha ya Cenozoic. Zotsatira zakuopsa zamasiku akalewo, nyama zonse zazikulu kuposa ng’ona zidasowa pamaso pa dziko lathuli. Ndipo nyama zazing'ono zomwe zidatsala zinali kubwera kwa nyengo yatsopano m'dziko losiyananso. Mu Cenozoic, Continental Drift (kusiyanasiyana) idapitilira. Iliyonse mwa mitundu yopanda nyama ndi nyama yomwe idapangidwa.
Mesozoic | Cenozoic | Era | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Paleogen | Neogene | Th | F-d | ||||
Paleocene | Eocene | Oligocene | Miocene | P | P | Ep | |
251 | 65,5 | 55,8 | 33,9 | 23,03 | 5,33 | 2,59 | miliyoni wazaka ← |
0,0117 |
Nthawi ya Paleogene
Paleogene, Paleogene, dongosolo la Paleogenic - geological nyengo, nthawi yoyamba ya Cenozoic. Zinayamba zaka 66 miliyoni zapitazo, zidatha - miliyoni 24.6.idatenga zaka 40.4 miliyoni.
Ku Paleogene, nyengo inali yotentha kwambiri. Pafupifupi Europe yonse idakutidwa ndi nkhalango zobiriwira zobiriwira, ndipo zomera zabwino zimamera kokha kumpoto. Mu theka lachiwiri la Paleogene, nyengo imakhala yowonjezereka, zipewa za ayezi zimawonekera pamitanda.
Panthawiyi, zakudya zapamadzi zinayamba.Pambuyo pochulukirachulukirachulukira, mitundu yambiri yaulere yazachilengedwe idayamba kukhala mitundu yatsopano ya zinyama. Oviparous, marsupials ndi placental zinali zofala. Munkhalango ndi mapiri a ku Asia, omwe amatchedwa "indricoteric fauna" adayamba.
Mbalame zokhala ndi zilembo zamtambo zimatulutsa mlengalenga. Mbalame zazikulupo zazikulu zodyera (diatrims) ndizofala. Mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya maluwa ndi tizilombo tikukula.
Mbedza zam'madzi zimachita bwino m'nyanja. Ma cetaceans oyambilira amawoneka, magulu atsopano a ma corals, ma urchins a nyanja, foraminifera - ma nummulitides amafikira masentimita angapo mulifupi, omwe ndi amodzi kwambiri kwa unicellular. Ma belemnite omaliza amwalira, cephalopod imayamba kuphulika ndi chipolopolo chochepetsetsa kapena chazimiririka - ma octopus, cuttlefish ndi squid, limodzi ndi ma belemnite omwe adalumikizidwa gulu la coleoids.
Nthawi ya Paleocene (zaka 55- 55 miliyoni zapitazo)
Ndi chiyambi cha Paleocene, pulaneti yopanda kanthu imayamba kuyambiranso pang'onopang'ono kuchokera ku zovuta zomwe zinachitika. Woyamba kuchita bwino pamtengowu. Pambuyo pazaka mazana owerengeka chabe, gawo lalikulu la dziko lapansi lidakutidwa ndi nkhalango komanso malo osasunthika, nkhalango zowirira zidasokota ngakhale kumadera a polar a Earth. Nyama zomwe zidapulumuka pakuchulukiratu kwa mitunduzo zidakhalabe zazing'ono, zidazungulira mochenjera pakati pa mitengo ikuluikulu komanso mitengo yodumphira. Nyama zazikulu kwambiri padziko lapansi nthawi imeneyo zinali mbalame. Mwachitsanzo, m'nkhalango za ku Europe ndi North America, Gastornis yemwe anali mdani wolusa kwambiri amasaka, mpaka kutalika mamita 2.2.
Kutha kwa ma dinosaurs osakhala a mbalame kunathandiza kuti zolengedwa zachilengedwe zifalikire padziko lonse lapansi ndikukhala ndi zatsopano zachilengedwe. Pamapeto pa Paleocene (pafupifupi zaka 55 miliyoni zapitazo), kusiyana kwawo kunawonjezeka kwambiri. Makolo a magulu ambiri amakono a zinyama adawonekera Padziko lapansi - zopanda nzeru, njovu, makoswe, anyani, mwachitsanzo (mileme), anamgumi, siresi. Pang'onopang'ono, zolengedwa zoyamwitsa zimayamba kugonjetsa dziko lapansi.
Nthawi ya Eocene (zaka 55 miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo)
Kumayambiriro kwa Eocene, gawo lalikulu ladzikolo linali litakutidwa ndi nkhalango yosavomerezeka. Nyengo inali yotentha komanso yanyontho. Nyama zoyambilira (tinthu ting'onoting'ono tahatchi propaleotherium, leptidia, etc.) zidathamanga ndikadumphira pa zinyalala. Hodination amakhala pamitengo (imodzi mwakale kwambiri), ndipo ambulocet amakhala ku Asia - chinsomba choyambirira chomwe chimatha kuyenda pamtunda.
Pafupifupi zaka 43 miliyoni zapitazo, nyengo padziko lapansi idakhala yozizira komanso youma. Mbali yofunika kwambiri padziko lapansi, nkhalango zowirira zinayamba kuteteza nkhalango ndi madambo. Kukhala m'malo otsegulira zathandizira kuti zikuchulukane.
Asia idakhala malo obadwira opatsirana mwamphamvu kwambiri (mwachitsanzo, emboloteria) ndi nyama zazikulu zokongoletsa (mwachitsanzo, endrusarch, mpaka 5.5 metres kutalika). M'madzi ofunda, nsomba zazikulu zakale zimayamba kusambira (mwachitsanzo, basilosaurus ndi dorudon), ndipo m'mphepete mwa Africa panali meritium ndi bizarre arsineuterium.
Pafupifupi zaka mamiliyoni 36 zapitazo, Antarctic yomwe ili kumpoto chakum'mwera idayamba kugwa, pansi pake padakutidwa ndi mapepala akuluakulu oundana. Nyengo pa dziko lapansi idayamba kuzizira, ndipo madzi m'madzi am'madzi adagwa. M'madera osiyanasiyana padziko lapansi, nyengo yamvula yamvula yasintha kwambiri. Nyama zambiri sizinathe kusintha kusinthaku, ndipo patangotha zaka mamiliyoni ochepa, pafupifupi gawo limodzi mwa zisanu zamoyo zonse za padziko lapansi zinafa.
Nthawi ya Oligocene (zaka 34 miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo)
Kumayambiriro kwa Oligocene, nyengo padziko lapansi idali youma komanso yozizira, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti pakhale mapiri otseguka, zipululu zouma komanso zitsamba. Zotsatira zakusintha kwa nyengo kumapeto kwa Eocene, mabanja ambiri akale achimereka adatha. Malo awo adatengedwa ndi mitundu yatsopano ya nyama, kuphatikizapo makolo achindunji a zolengedwa zamakono zam'madzi - zikomo, mahatchi, nkhumba, ngamila ndi akalulu.
Zomera zazikulu zam'madzi zimapezekabe pakati pa zinyama (Paraceratheriummwachitsanzo, sanali otsika kukula kuposa ma dinosaurs ena - amatha kufikira ma 5 kutalika ndi kulemera mpaka matani 17) ndi zilombo (monga entelodon ndi hyenodon).
Zotsatira zakupitilizika kopitilira malire kwamakontrakitala, South America ndi Australia zimasiyana kotheratu padziko lonse lapansi. Popita nthawi, nyama zapadera zidapangidwa pamilumba "yachilumbachi" iyi, yoyimiriridwa ndi nyama zam'madzi ndi nyama zina zakunja.
Pafupifupi zaka 25 miliyoni zapitazo ku Asia, zigwa zoyambirira za m'mphepete mwa nyanja zinapangidwa, yokutidwa ndi chimanga - mapiri. Kuyambira pamenepo, mbewu monga chimanga, zomwe zinali zosafunikira kwenikweni pamtunda wapansi, m'malo ambiri padziko lapansi zikusintha pang'onopang'ono kukhala mtundu waukulu wamasamba, womwe pomaliza unakwaniritsa gawo lachisanu padziko lapansi.
Nthawi ya Neogene
Neogene - geological nyengo, nthawi yachiwiri ya Cenozoic. Nthawi ya Neogene inayamba zaka 25 miliyoni zapitazo, inatha zaka 2 miliyoni zapitazo. Kutalika kwa Neogene ndi zaka 23 miliyoni. Nyama zam'madzi zimadziwa bwino nyanja ndi mlengalenga - zikuluzikulu ndi mileme zimatuluka. Ma placental amakankhidwira kumtunda wa nyama zotsala. Zabwino za nthawi imeneyi zikuchulukirachulukira ngati zamakono. Koma kusiyanasiyana kumakhalabe - pakadali ma mastodon, ma hipparion, ma tiger oyenda ndi sabler. Mbalame zazikulu zopanda ndege zimachita mbali yayikulu, makamaka m'malo azitunda zakutali.
Nyengo ya Miocene (zaka 24-5 miliyoni zapitazo)
Kusinthana kwa nyengo youma komanso yamvula kunadzetsa kuti ku Miocene gawo lalikulu ladzikolo lidakutidwa ndi mapiri opanda malire. Popeza chimanga ndi zitsamba zina sizikudya bwino, zomwe zimapanga ubweya wa herpivor zapangira mitundu yatsopano yamano ndipo zida zamagetsi zasintha, kuwalola kuti achepetse michere yambiri pazopezekazo.
Pamapondapo panali malo ng'ombe zamphongo, agulu ndi mahatchi. Zambiri mwa nyamazo zimasunga ng'ombe ndipo zimangoyendayenda m'malo osiyanasiyana mvula ikamagwa. Pambuyo pa gulu la zitsamba, olusa adatsata zidendene.
Nyama zina zimakonda kudula masamba a mitengo ndi zitsamba. Ena mwa iwo (mwachitsanzo, dinoteria ndi chalicoterium) amafikira zazikulu kwambiri.
Ku Miocene, machitidwe ambiri ammapiri adapangidwa - Alps, Himalayas, Andes ndi Rockies. Ena mwa iwo adakhala okwera kwambiri kotero kuti adasintha kayendedwe ka mpweya mumlengalenga ndikuyamba kugwira ntchito yofunika kwambiri pakupanga nyengo.
Nthawi ya Pliocene (zaka 5-2.6 miliyoni zapitazo)
Ku Pliocene, nyengo ya Earth yasintha kwambiri. Dziko lathuli limagawika m'madera ambiri a mvula - kuchokera kumadera okutidwa ndi ayezi wa polar kupita kumalo otentha.
M'matanthwe aliwonse a kontinenti iliyonse, mitundu yatsopano ya herbivores ndi nyama zodya ziwonetsero zimawonekera. Kumagawo akum'mawa ndi kum'mwera kwa Africa, nkhalango zowirira zinatseguka, zomwe zinakakamiza anthu oyamba (mwachitsanzo, Afar Australopithecus) kutsika kuchokera kumitengo ndi kuwotcha pansi.
Pafupifupi zaka miliyoni 2,5 zapitazo, dziko la South America, lomwe kwa zaka pafupifupi mamiliyoni 30 lidali kutali ndi dziko lonse lapansi, lidagwirizana ndi North America. Ma smilodons ndi ena omwe adadyera adalowa m'dera la Argentina wamakono kuchokera kumpoto, pomwe odzipereka, ma fororacosa, ndi ena oimira anzawo aku South America adasamukira ku North America. Kusamukira kwanyama kumeneku kunatchedwa Great Exchange. Kumapeto kwa Pliocene, ma megafauna apamadzi (zolengedwa, mbalame za m'madzi, akamba ndi asaka) amwalira - 36% ya mtundu wa Pliocene sakanatha kukhalabe ku Pleistocene. Ziwerengero zowonjezera zinali zochulukirapo katatu kuposa momwe zimakhalira Cenozoic Norm (nthawi2,2 kuposa kuposa mu Miocene, 60% kuposa kuposa ku Pleistocene).
Nthawi ya Anthropogenic (Quaternary)
Iyi ndi nthawi yayifupi kwambiri ya chilengedwe, koma zinali mu Quaternary pomwe mapangidwe amakono amakono ndipo zochitika zambiri zazikulu zinachitika m'mbiri ya Dziko Lapansi (kuchokera pakuwona munthu), zomwe zinali zofunikira kwambiri zomwe zinali zaka za ayezi komanso mawonekedwe a munthu. Kutalika kwa Quaternary ndi kochepa kwambiri kotero kuti njira zopezeka paliponse zodziwika bwino za m'badwo komanso isotopic zidadzakhala zolondola komanso zowoneka bwino. Pakadutsa kanthawi kochepa chonchi, kusanthula kwa radiocarbon ndi njira zina zochokera pakuwonongeka kwa isotopes kwakanthawi kochepa zimagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka. Kuwonekera kwa nyengo ya Quaternary poyerekeza ndi nyengo zina zam'dziko kunabweretsa moyo wapadera nthambi ya zikhalidwe - Quaternary.
Quaternary imagawidwa kukhala Pleistocene ndi Holocene.
Nthawi ya Pleistocene (zaka 2.6 miliyoni zapitazo - zaka 11.7,000 zapitazo)
Kumayambiriro kwa Pleistocene, nthawi yayitali yamadzi oundana inayamba padziko lapansi. Kwa zaka mamiliyoni awiri, kuzizira kwambiri komanso nthawi zotentha zimasinthidwa padzikoli kambiri. M'madera ozizira, omwe adatenga zaka pafupifupi 40,000, ma kontrakitala adalandidwa ndi madzi oundana. Pakadutsa nyengo yotentha (ma interglacials), madzi oundana adachepa, ndipo madzi am'madzi amadzuka.
1250-700 malita Panthawi ya Middle Pleistocene, kayendedwe ka madzi kanasinthiratu Nyanja ya Bering, popeza Bering Strait idatsekedwa ndi pepala lozizira ndipo madzi ozizira opangidwa mu Nyanja ya Bering chifukwa cha kusungunuka kwa ayezi adatsekeredwa mu Pacific Ocean.
Nyama zambiri zam'madera ozizira a pulaneti (mwachitsanzo, ma mammoth ndi maubweya waubweya) ali ndi malaya amtundu komanso nkhungu yamafuta osalala. Gulu la agwada ndi mahatchi amadyera m'zidikha, zomwe zimasakidwa ndi mikango yamphanga ndi adani ena. Ndipo pafupifupi zaka 3,000 zapitazo, anthu adayamba kuwasakanso nawonso - woyamba munthu waku Neanderthal, kenako munthu wololera.
Komabe, nyama zambiri zazikulu sizinathe kusintha kusinthasintha kwa nyengo ndipo zidasowa. Pafupifupi zaka 10,000 zapitazo, nyengo ya ayeziyo idatha, ndipo nyengo padziko lapansi idakhala yotentha komanso yamvula. Izi zinathandizira kukulira kwachilengedwe kwa anthu komanso kukhazikitsidwa kwa anthu padziko lonse lapansi. Anaphunzira kulima nthaka ndikubzala mbewu zobzalidwa. Poyamba, madera ang'onoang'ono azilimi adakula, mizindayi idawoneka, ndipo zaka zochepa chabe pambuyo pake, anthu adasandulika kukhala gulu ladziko lonse pogwiritsa ntchito zonse zomwe akwaniritsa mwaukadaulo wapamwamba. Koma mitundu yambiri ya zinyama yomwe anthu kuyambira kalekale adagawana dziko lapansi, inali pafupi kutha. Ichi ndichifukwa chake asayansi nthawi zambiri amati kupezeka kwa vuto la anthu Padziko Lapansi kutuluka kwatsopano kwa mitundu yazinthu.
Nthawi ya Holocene (zaka 11.7 zapitazo - zamakono)
Moyo wa nyama ndi zomera unasintha pang'ono pa nthawi ya Holocene, koma pali mayendedwe akulu pakugawidwa kwawo. Nyama zambiri zazikulu, kuphatikizapo mammoths ndi mastodons, amphaka amisamba (monga smilodons ndi Homotherias) ndi malo otsetsereka, anayamba kufa kuyambira kumapeto kwa Pleistocene mpaka ku Holocene yoyambirira. Ku North America, nyama zambiri zomwe zidakula m'malo ena (kuphatikiza mahatchi ndi ngamila) zidatha. Ophunzira ena akufotokoza kuchepa kwa megafauna aku America ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa makolo a amwenye aku America, koma ambiri aiwo amati kusintha kwanyengo kwasintha kwambiri.