• DZIWANI IZI
• Nthawi yamoyo ndi malo ake (nthawi): pafupifupi mu Mesozoic (210 - 65,5 miliyoni zapitazo)
• Kupezeka: m'ma XVIII century., Bavaria (Germany)
• Ufumu: Zinyama
• Era: Mesozoic
• Mtundu: Makina
• Kalasi: Zotulutsa
• Gulu: A Fosa Archosaurs Osefukira
• Madera: Ramforinhs ndi Pterodactyls
• Banja: Pterosaur
• Mtundu: Pterosaurs

Amatha kutchedwa kuti opitilira muyeso wamlengalenga. Moyo wawo unadutsa pomwe panali ma dinosaurs ndi ma dinosaurs apamadzi. Pali mabanja 16 a pterosaurs, komabe, zinali zovuta kupeza chifukwa mafupa sanasungidwe bwino.

Choyamba kupezeka mkati mwa zaka za XVIII. Zavru, asayansi sanatchule dzina. Koma mu 1809, paleontologist ndiologistologist Cuvier Georges pamapeto pake anatha kuzindikira kuti uwu ndi mtundu wouluka wamitundu mitundu ndipo watipatsa tonse dzina lodziwika bwino la ma dinosaurs.

Pali mitundu pafupifupi 60 ya ma pterosaurs, wamkulu kwambiri mwa iwo anali padziko lapansi - azhdarchids (omwe atalika kufika 8m, adasaka ma dinosaurs ena) ndikuwuluka - Ornithoheirus (mapiko kuyambira 12 mpaka 15 metres), anali obala okhathamira magazi.

Mudadya chiyani komanso moyo wanji

Nthawi zambiri moyo umadutsa mlengalenga, nthawi zina, mitundu ina, imakhala pansi ndikusambira m'madzi. Amakhala m'matumba, amatha kupanga maulendo ataliatali, nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito kukonzekera kumtunda ndi nyanja. Zavras zatsopano zimasungidwa ku chipolopolo ndipo poyamba sizinakhale zazikulu zazikulu, koma zimadziwa kale kuwuluka ndikudzipezera chakudya.

Zazikulu zomwe zimadyetsedwa nyama zapadziko lapansi, koma nthawi zina, ngati zazing'ono, zimasaka nsomba zowuluka pamwamba pamadzi. Akazi anali ocheperako poyerekeza ndi amuna, ndipo mawonekedwe a kumutuwo analinso ochepa.

Zambiri zamapangidwe amthupi

Malo a chifuwa anali otetezedwa bwino ndi chipolopolo. Mitundu yambiri inali ndi tsitsi mthupi lonse, khosi ndi mutu (2-4 mm), ndipo ina inkakhala ndi timiyala pakati pa zala zakuda ndi miyendo, zomwe zinkakutidwa ndi ubweya.

Mafupa anali opepuka, motero zinali zotheka kukhalapo mlengalenga kwa nthawi yayitali popanda mavuto.

Mutu

Mitundu yambiri ya ma dinosaurs iyi inali ndi mitu ya mitu pamitu yawo; Adathandizira kuwongolera kuthawa, ndikuwonetsa ngati wankhanza komanso kukopa akazi.

Kapangidwe ka ubongo wa saurine kamafanana ndi kamvulu, ndikudzaza matumbo athunthu. Mphamvu yakuwoneka bwino ndikuwonetsetsa kuti ikuyenda bwino idapangidwa bwino, ndipo mawonekedwe openyanso anali abwino kwambiri, monga zikuwonekera mwa njira yawo yosakira - pothawa adalanda nyama yawo ndikuigwira osazengereza.

Nsagwada, ngati khosi, zidadulidwa. Mitundu ina inalibe mano, inkangameza nsomba.

Mbiri ya Kafukufuku wa Pterosaur

Mu 1784, Alessandro Collini, yemwe adayendetsa zala zambiri ku Mannheim, adalemba zolembedwa zakale za pterosaurs, koma sanadziwe kuti izi zidapeza chiyani. Mu 1801, Georges Cuvier, yemwe anali katswiri wofufuza zinthu ku France, anapeza kuti zinthu zakale zomwe zapezeka ndi zotsalira za mitundu ina yomwe inkadziwika kale. Mu 1809 Cuvier adatcha nyamayo "pterodactyl."

Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za zana la 19, asayansi amakhulupirira kuti pali mitundu iwiri kapena itatu yokha ya pterosaurs. M'masiku amenewo, moyo wa iwo omwe amakonda nyama izi unali wosalira zambiri. Koma podzafika kumapeto kwa zaka za zana, asayansi adapeza mitundu yatsopano yambiri ndikugawa ma pterosaurs m'magulu awiri. Gulu limodzi linali ndi mchira wautali, kanjedza kakafupi, mphuno zazing'ono, komanso mafelemu akunja ozungulira. Gulu la pterosaurs limatchedwa ramforinha.

Gulu lachiwiri linaphatikizapo ma pterosaurs okhala ndi manja aatali, mchira wamfupi ndi mphuno, wophatikizidwa ndi anterior orbital foramen. Gululi limatchedwa "pterodactyls" pambuyo pa Georges Cuvier. Mosiyana ndi ma rumphorinchs, ma pterodactyl anali ndi mitu yawo. Koma kumayambiriro kwa zaka za XXI, asayansi anapeza mawonekedwe a ramforinhs, amenenso anali ndi mutu pamutu pawo.

Asayansi adadabwitsa pamene, m'zaka za zana la 21, mtundu wa pterosaurs udapezeka womwe sunakhale m'modzi mwa magulu awiriwa. Ambiri mwa ma pterosaurs adapezeka ku China ndi England. Ma pterosaurs anali ndi kanjedza kakafupi komanso mchira wautali. Izi zinali zofananira ndi ramforinhs. Koma chigaza chawo chinali chofanana ndi cha pterodactyls: thebern orbital foramen imagwirizana ndi mphuno. Gulu la pterosaurs limatchedwa wukonopterids ndipo pano akuphunzira mwatsatanetsatane. Mtunduwu umatha kufotokozera zambiri za momwe pterodactyls adachokera ku ramforins.

Njira zofufuzira

Asayansi nthawi zambiri amafufuza ma pterosaurs pazinthu zakale zomwe zimasungidwa m'malo osungirako zinthu zakale padziko lonse lapansi. Zopereka zabwino kwambiri zili ku Europe, izi: mu Museum of Natural History ku London, mu Bavarian State Archaeological Collection ku Munich, mu State Museum of Natural History ku Karlsruhe. Palinso mapangidwe mazana angapo mumyuziyamu ku China.

Ofufuza ena akuchita ntchito yamunda poyesa kupeza mitundu yatsopano ya ma pterosaurs. Izi ndizoyesa zowopsa, chifukwa mafupa a pterosaurs ndi osowa kwambiri, ndipo nthawi zonse pamakhala mwayi kuti ulendowu ungowonongedwa. Komabe, pali malo angapo padziko lapansi momwe mungapezeko zotsalira zambiri za pterosaurs. Koma mafupa athunthu sapezeka konse komweko. Roland Poskl adapeza mafupa okwanira 50 a ma pterosaurs m'moyo wake. Koma adafukula payekha chifukwa cha zomwe adatola.

Kusiyanitsa mafupa a pterosaurs kuchokera ku mafupa a dinosaurs nthawi zambiri kumakhala kosavuta. Mafupa a dinosaur nthawi zambiri amakhala opanda kanthu, koma osaboweka ngati pterosaurs. Mafupa a mapiko a pterosaurs ndi aatali komanso oonda, ndipo ndiosavuta kuzindikira. Chifukwa chakuti ma pterosaurs anali kuuluka zouluka, mafupa awo ndiosiyana kwambiri ndi mafupa a nyama zina.

Kusintha kwa luso louluka

Ma pterosaurs oyamba adawoneka zaka pafupifupi miliyoni miliyoni zapitazo mu nthawi ya Upper Triassic kumadera a mapiri a kumpoto kwa Italiya, Western Austria ndi Switzerland. Mitundu yaying'ono kwambiri idawonekera kumapeto kwa Cretaceous. Mitundu yaying'ono ya ma pterosaurs imaphatikizapo quetzalcoatlus waku Texas, hatsegopteryks aku Romania, ndi aramburgian aku Jordan. Mitundu yonseyi idafa zaka 700 miliyoni zapitazo atagwa meteorite yomwe idasesa padziko lapansi ndi ma dinosaurs akuluakulu. Chifukwa chake, pterosaurs adakhala padziko lapansi kwa zaka 164 miliyoni. Koma ndizotheka kuti atha kukhala ndi nthawi yayitali, popeza asayansi sanapezebe makolo a pterosaurs.

Zotsatira zake, kuphunzira kusinthika kwa kuthekera kwa kuuluka mu pterosaurs kwakhala vuto. Mapangidwe a mapiko a pterosaurs ndi osiyana ndi kapangidwe ka mapiko a mbalame, mileme ndi tizilombo, ngakhale mitundu yonseyi ili ndi mawonekedwe wamba. Tsopano asayansi akuyesera kuti amvetsetse mapangidwe a mapiko a pterosaurs. Zotsalira za onse akulu ndi ang'ono zasungidwa. Mafupa ena adasungidwa bwino, ndipo mutha kuwona momwe wolumikizira aliyense amagwirira ntchito. Palinso zitsanzo zosangalatsa ku Germany ndi Kazakhstan, zomwe zasunga minofu yofewa. Malinga ndi zitsanzozi, ma pterosaurs anali ndi nembanemba yowuluka, yomwe imatambasulidwa kuyambira khosi kupita m'chiwuno, kuyambira kumapeto kwa chala chachinayi mpaka chala chachisanu komanso kuchokera pachiwuno chimodzi kupita kwina. Nthawi yomweyo, miyendo imasungidwa padera, ndipo nembanemba yowuluka inali yayikulu kwambiri.

Mitundu ina ya Cretaceous pterosaurs yomwe imapezeka ku Brazil ndi China, komanso mitundu ya nthawi ya Late Jurassic, yomwe imapezeka ku Germany, idapangitsa kuwona mawonekedwe amkati mwa membala wam'mimba ndikuwunikira mkati mwake minofu yolimba, mitsempha yamagazi, komanso mafinya am'mimba. Ngakhale matupi ena a pterodactyl ali ndi nthenga zake, kunalibe nthenga pazosuluka.

Asayansi sanapeze mtundu wina wapakatikati womwe ungagwirizanitse ma pterodactyls akuuluka komanso makolo awo opanda ndege. Chifukwa chake, sizikudziwika bwinobwino momwe ma pterosaurs adakhalira mapiko. Koma mutha kudziwa njira ya kukhazikikirana kwa chala chachisanu, kutalika kwa chala chachinayi, ndipo mitundu inanso - kutalika kwamphamvu kwa mafupa achitsulo. Fupa latsopano la pterygoid linawoneka pafupi ndi dzanja, lomwe limatha kuwongolera kutsogolo kwa membrane wouluka. Zinali zofunika pakukhudza. Chikhulupiriro chachikulu cha paphewa chimawonetsa kuti ma pterosaurs adakutumula mapiko awo. Koma mitundu ikuluikulu nthawi yayitali imakhala nthawi yayitali ikungoyenda mumlengalenga.

[Sinthani] Zambiri

Nthawi zambiri amakhala m'gulu la nyama zokwawa, ngakhale anali nyama yamwazi wofunda. Anatomally, pterosaurs anali ofanana ndi mbalame, ngakhale sanali makolo awo, ngati ma dinosaurs. Chifukwa chake, mafupa a pterosaurs anali opanda kanthu komanso odzaza ndi mpweya, ngati mafupa a mbalame. Monga mbalame, ma pterosaurs anali ndi fupa la keel, pomwe minofu yomwe imakhudzidwa ndikuuluka, ndi ubongo wopangidwa bwino, womwe unkayang'anira ntchito zokhudzana ndi kuthawa.

Adatulukira zaka 228 miliyoni zapitazo ku Late Triassic ndipo adatha kumapeto kwa nthawi ya Cretaceous ya Mesozoic munthawi ya Cretaceous - Paleogene, zaka 700 miliyoni zapitazo.

Zinali zazikulu kwambiri: anthu ochepa kwambiri, monga Nemicolopterus crypticus, inali ndi mapiko ofika 25 cm, mtundu waukulu kwambiri, Arambourgiania philadelphiae, Hatzegopteryx thambema ndi Quetzalcoatlus kumpoto inafika mapiko a 10-13 metres.

Pterosaurs anali nyama zouluka.

Mapiko a pterosaurs amapangidwa ndi membrane wa khungu ndi zimakhala zina. Ulusi waukulu unalumikizidwa ndi chala chakumaso chachinayi ndikuwoloweka m'mbali mwa thupi mpaka kumapeto. Membranes anali gulu losavuta kupanga lopanga mphamvu kuti lizitha kuthawa. Mapiko akunja (kuyambira kumapeto kwa chala mpaka kumanzere) ankalimbikitsidwa ndi ulusi wokhala ndi mbali zoyenda kwambiri wotchedwa Actinofibrils. Ma Actinofibrils anali ndi zigawo zitatu zosiyanasiyana, zodutsana molumikizana. Ntchito yeniyeni ya actinofibril sichikudziwika, monganso zomwe zidachokera. Kutengera kapangidwe kawo (keratin, ulusi wa minofu, zomangamanga), amatha kukhala opinimbira kapena othandizira kunsi kwa phiko. Membranes inali ndi minyewa yopyapyala, minofu yam'mimba, komanso njira yovuta yoyendera magazi.

Nembanemba wamapiko anali magawo atatu. Gawo lalikulu linali chiropathy ("Membrane wa nkono"), wotambasuka pakati pa miyendo yakutsogolo ndi kumbuyo. Chiropathagy amathandizidwa ndi mbandakucha wamodzi, wamtali kwambiri, womwe nthawi zambiri umatchedwa chala chachinayi cha phiko. Zala zitatu zoyambirira, mosiyana, zinali zazing'ono komanso zokhala ndi zikhadabo. Gawo lachiwiri la mapiko linali Patatagy ("Front membrane"). Kunali kutsogolo kwa phiko, lomwe limayambira m'chiuno mpaka kumapeto, ndikupangitsa "kutsogola" pakuuluka. Mwachidziwikire, nembanemba iyi idaphatikizanso zala zitatu zoyambirira za dzanja. Gawo lachitatu linali croropathagywozungulira wopindika pakati pa miyendo ya pterosaurs. Zikuoneka kuti croropatagius amangolumikiza mawoko awo ndipo sanali olumikizidwa ndi mchira.

Wapadera nyama izi fupa - pididi - idalumikizidwa ndi dzanja ndikuthandizira kukonza membrane (kutsogolo) pakati pa dzanja ndi phewa.

Pakumapeto kwa ma pterosaurs, ma vertebrae angapo ophatikizika adalumikizidwa ku gulu lotchedwa "notary", lomwe limathandizira kuwonjezera kukhwimitsa mafupa ndikuthandizira masamba.

Ma Pterosaurs anali ndi mapazi okhala ndi masamba.

Mitundu yoyambirira inali ndi nsagwada zazitali za toothy ndi michira yayitali, mitundu yamapeto inali itachepetsa mwamphamvu michira kapena kusakhalapo kwathunthu, ndipo ambiri analibe mano.

Zovuta zambiri zomwe zimapezeka zimakhala ndi nsagwada zopyapyala zomwe zili ndi mano athunthu a singano. Nthawi zina, zotsalira za mulomo wa keratin zimasungidwa, ngakhale mu mitundu yomwe imakhala ndi mano, mulomo ndi wocheperako, woperewera ndi nsonga za nsagwada ndipo mulibe mano. Mitundu ina yapamwamba, mwachitsanzo, Pteranodontidae ndi Azhdarchidae, anali aulemu ndipo anali ndi milomo yayikulu, yofanana ndi milomo ya mbalame.

Mosiyana ndi archosaurs ambiri, makina am'mphuno komanso preorbital omwe amapezeka pterodactyloid mitundu ya pterosaurs adalumikizidwa pa khomo limodzi lalikulu, lotchedwa uw-preorbital zenera (tsopano-antorbital fenestra), zikuwoneka kuti limapangitsa kuti lwazi liziuluka mosavuta.

Amakhulupirira kuti ma pterodactyl ang'ono ndi ma ramphorinch autali nthawi zambiri amawombera mapiko awo pamene akuuluka, pomwe ma pterosaurs akuluakulu amayenda pamtunda wokwera, akugwiritsa ntchito thandizo kukwera mafunde amlengalenga ndikuthandizira kuwuluka ndi mapiko ochepa osowa.

Ma pterosaurs ena adadziwika ndi zitunda zovuta, nthawi zambiri kuphatikiza keratin ndi zina zofewa. Mwinanso, chisa chija chimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi ma pterosaurs kuti akope chidwi cha amuna kapena akazi okhaokha (chisa chimenecho chinali chimodzi mwatsatanetsatane wokhudza kugonana), komanso kuwongolera kuthawako (iko kunali ngati kuyendetsa ngalawa ndi kuwongolera poyendetsa ndege), ananenanso kuti chisacho chikugwira ntchito ngati motsutsana ndi mlomo, kapena ngakhale yophunzitsira.

Panali ulusi wokhala ngati tsitsi kumutu ndi thupi - thcnofiberi, zofananira, koma osati zachipongwe ndi tsitsi la zinyama, ndikufanana ndi nthenga za prosa-za dinosaurs. Kukhalapo kwa ma pycnofibres akuwonetsa kuti ma pterosaurs anali nyama yamagazi ofunda, popeza mawonekedwe amtsitsi ndiwothandiza kutentha, ndipo kupezekapo kwake kumayimira kukwaniritsidwa kwa homeothermy yoona ndi ma pterosaurs - kutentha kwa thupi kosalekeza komwe kumayendetsedwa ndi masinthidwe achilengedwe. Pycnofibres sanachite ntchito yotsutsana, koma adawonekera munjira yoti zamoyo zimachita kusinthasintha.

Mwina mitundu ina inali ndi nthenga zachilendo.

Inakhala ndi minofu yamapiko olimba ndikugwiritsa ntchito minofu iyi kuyendayenda miyendo inayi. Pterosaurs mwina adagwiritsa ntchito kulumpha kukweza matupi awo m'mwamba. Mphamvu zazikulu zakutsogolo zinawalola kuchoka. Kamodzi mlengalenga, ma pterosaurs amatha kufikira liwiro lakufika ku 120 km / h ndikuwuluka makilomita masauzande.

Ma pterosaurs anali ndi chikwama cha mpweya komanso pampu yolamulira mwamphamvu, yomwe inkapereka mpweya kudzera m'mapapu ofanana ndi omwe amapezeka mu mbalame.

Kuunika kwa X-ray pamitsempha ya ubongo ya pterosaurs Rhamphorhynchus muensteri ndi Anhanguera santanae adawululira kupezeka kwa zigawo zazikuluzikulu mkati mwake, komwe ndi gawo la cerebellum, lomwe limaphatikiza zizindikiro kuchokera kulumikizana, minofu, khungu ndi ziwalo zolimba. Chigawo cha pterosaur chidakhala ndi 7.5% ya kuchuluka kwa ubongo wawo, womwe umaposa vertebrate ina iliyonse. Chidacho chimatumiza zikwangwani zomwe zimatulutsa timinofu tating'ono, tomwe timapangitsa chithunzicho kukhala chosasunthika. Mwina ma pterosaurs anali ndi gawo lalikulu chotere chifukwa cha kukula kwa phiko, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti amafunika kukonza zambiri zazidziwitso. Kuchulukitsa kocheperako pakati pa mbalame kumakhalanso chifukwa cha ubongo waukulu, ngakhale kuti ma pterosaurs amakhulupirira kuti amakhala m'malo osavuta kupangika kapena ali ndi chikhalidwe chovuta kwambiri kuyerekeza ndi mbalame, ndipo kafukufuku waposachedwa wa mamba ndi zolengedwa zina zimawonetsa kuti zavropsids zimawonetsa zovuta mitundu yamakhalidwe okhala ndi ubongo wocheperako.

Pterosaurs anali azidyamakanda. Mitundu yokhala ndi mano ataliatali mwachidziwikire imagwira nsomba (komanso cephalopods). Mitundu ina inkadyanso nyama zodyedwa, ngakhale ma dinosaurs, zolengedwa zoyamwitsa ndi ma invertebrates (tizilombo zazikulu, anyani ndi crustaceans). Mitundu ina sinanyoze kunyamula. Mamembala am'banja Tapejaridae mwachionekere anadya zipatso za mbewu. Ma pterodactyl ena (Belonochasma, Ctenochasma) m'nthawi ya nsagwada idakhala yolimidwa kwambiri, mpaka 1000, mano owonda kwambiri komanso lalitali, omwe atha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati kusefa zida. Mitundu ina ikhoza kukhala kuti ikukumba dothi m'milomo yawo kwa nyama zazing'ono.

Nawonso, ma dinosaurs olusa ndipo mwina ndi ng'ona, itthyosaurs, mosasaurs ndi asodzi amasaka pterosaurs.Komanso, ma pterosaurs adadwala ndi majeremusi osiyanasiyana. Ndizotheka kuti mbalame ndi pterosaurs zimasakirana, komanso kuti pterosaurs nawonso amatha kusaka pterosaurs ang'onoang'ono.

Ndizotheka kuti ma pterosaurs ena amatha kusambira, ngati mafoni am'madzi amakono. Ndiye inu Yeolopterus, ngati mafoni am'madzi amakono, panali ziwalo pakati pa zala zakumiyendo zakumbuyo. Zoyenera kudya nsomba zikuwoneka kuti zimatha kukhala pamadzi ndikusambira momwemo, kwinaku akumeta miyendo yawo ya kumbuyo, ngati abakha. Makamaka, zopezeka zotsalira ndi ma pterosaurs oyenda mumadzi osaya adapezeka.

Makamaka, pterosaur Tapapejara wellnhoferi anali ndi mafupa osazolowereka (thupi lofanana ndi mileme, chimphona chachikulu chosagwedezeka pamutu) chomwe chidamuthandiza kusambira m'madzi. Kafukufuku wa aero- ndi hydrodynamics yamapiko akuwonetsa kuti T. wellnhoferi, ngati chosinthira, adamanganso thupi lake (mwina, ngati buluzi uyu wowuluka) kuti liziwoneka pamwamba pa madzi, ngati kuti linali pansi pa bwato. Chifukwa chake, mwina adadzifunafuna chakudya. Pankhani ya adani omwe amakhala pansi pa madzi T. wellnhoferi Amatha kunyamuka ndikubisala. Akamaliza T. wellnhoferi ndinamiza m'madzi kumbuyo kwa madzi, ndikupanga cholembera cha kumbuyo kwa chombocho, miyendo yakumbuyo m'mbali mwake inali ngati mbali zina. Zotsatira zake zinali zam'madzi, komanso kulumikizana ndi madzi pang'ono kunapangitsa kuti madzi azithamanga pamwamba pa madzi ndikuthamanga bwino. Kupititsa patsogolo kwa pterosaur kunachitika chifukwa cha mapiko aatali komanso owonda, omwe adasewera mbali ziwiri ndimatayala, ndipo malo otchuka a cranial anali jib, kukulolani kuti musinthe komwe akuyenda. Chisa chija chimathandizira kusambira, ngakhale nthawi yomweyo chimagwiritsidwa ntchito kukopa anyamata kapena atsikana.

Pterosaurs adayikira mazira. Mitundu ina inkakhala m'madera akuluakulu, ofanana ndi "mbalame zamisika" zamakina ndi magulu am'madzi am'nyanja. Asayansi apeza malingaliro akuti ma pterosaurs amatha kulera anapiye. Kafukufuku wotsalira wa malemuyo akuwonetsa kuti ana a ma pterosaurs anali opanda thandizo ndipo sangathe kudzipatsa okha chakudya ndikudzisamalira, choncho asanabadwe, makolo awo amayenera kuwasamalira. Pogwiritsa ntchito tomography, asayansi adapeza kuti nestling yokhazikika kwambiri ili ndi zaka pafupifupi ziwiri, koma kukula kwake mu dzira nthawi yakufa kudalipobe. Izi zikutanthauza kuti ma pterosaurs akuluakulu amateteza mazira awo.

Ma Pterosaurs agawidwa m'magulu awiri (mitundu yoposa 200 ikufotokozedwa):

Kutha kumapeto kwa Cretaceous chifukwa cha kugwa kwa Earth of asteroid / asteroid (chimphona chachikulu Chiksulub ndi Shiva) kukula

Makilomita 10 (kapena kuposerapo) zaka 65 miliyoni zapitazo, mpikisano wochokera ku mbalame ndipo, mwina, zinthu zina zoyipa (ntchito zamapiri / misoti ya Deccan /, mwina zotengeka ndi zovuta za asteroid / asteroid).

Order Winged Lizards kapena Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

"Ma dinosaurs oyendayenda." Awa ndi mitundu yoyamba yokhotakhota komanso zokwawa zokha zomwe zimayenda mlengalenga. Zinali zouluka zenizeni zokhoza kuthawa.

Gululi lili ndi ubale wapabanja wokhala ndi ma dinosaurs ndi makolo awo. Gwero lake silikudziwika bwino, mwina linachokera ku nyama zazing'ono zazing'ono zam'madzi zomwe zimakhala pamitengo kapena m'matanthwe okhudzana ndi Lagosuchus ndi Scleromochlus. Anawonekera mwadzidzidzi kumapeto kwa Triassic, zaka pafupifupi 225-230 miliyoni zapitazo. Zomwe zimapezeka koyambirira zimadziwika kuchokera ku Late Triassic yaku Northern Italy, Germany ndi Greenland. Awa anali opangidwa kale mokulira ndi ma fupa opangidwa kuti azithawa. Uwu ndi m'badwo wofanana ndi ma dinosaurs akale odziwika ndi zolengedwa zenizeni. Kale ku Jurassic kufalikira padziko lonse lapansi. Kutha kumapeto kwa Cretaceous. Atha kukhala gulu la alongo ku Dinosauriformes mkati mwa Ornithodira, koma atha kukhala akatswiri oyambira.

Ngakhale ma pterosaurs amasunga zambiri za makolo awo akale, matupi awo adasinthidwa kuti azikwera mitengo ndikuwuluka. Pambuyo pake, zosintha zina zidapanga mitundu yosiyana. Ma Pterosaurs adalamulira kuthambo kwa Mesozoic ambiri, koma sanapulumuke pakutha kwa Late Cretaceous.

Nthawi zambiri anali ndi chigaza chachikulu chokhala ndi mano akuthwa, khosi lalitali, thupi lalifupi logwirizana, miyendo yayitali ndi mapiko a nembanemba. Nsagwada zidakulitsidwa, ena (Jurassic) anali ndi mano, ena (Late Cretaceous) anali ndi mulomo wamlomo. Zing'ono kwambiri zinali kukula kwa mpheta, ndipo zazikulu kwambiri zinafika kukula kwa ndege. Zina zimakutidwa ndi ulusi wonga ubweya.

Mitundu yopitilira 130 yalongosoledwa, koma ndi 30 yokha yomwe imadziwika ndi zotsalira zokwanira. Mitundu yambiri inali ndi mapiko osakwana mita imodzi ndipo inali yofanana ndi nkhunda kapena khwangwala. Mitundu ikuluikulu idawoneka mu Cretaceous, 3-4 mamita mu mapiko, ndipo zimphona zazikulu za Late Cretaceous zinafika 10 m.

Triassic pterosaurs ndiye mtundu wakale kwambiri komanso wakale kwambiri. Nthawi zambiri amatha kuzindikiridwa ndi mano awo, omwe amatha kukhala ndi nsonga yoposa imodzi. Pambuyo pake ma pterosaurs anali ndi mano ataliitali, owoneka ngati mano. Mano ambiri a ma pterosaurs ndi osalala, ozungulira pamtanda, zigawo sizikupezeka. Amakonda kupendekera mogwirizana mpaka kumapeto ndipo amatha kuwongoka kapena kupindika pang'ono. Mitundu ina ya zinthu zakale yosonyeza zinthu zakale yowonetsa zofananira ndi mano a pterosaur, makamaka agogo ena ang'ono. Mafupa a Triassic pterosaurs ndi okulirapo kuposa mitundu yamtsogolo; amawonetsa makoma akulu ndi zotseguka zazing'ono za chibayo.

Nthawi ya Jurassic inali nthawi yomwe abuluzi owuluka amapanga chisinthiko chachikulu. Amakhala m'malo ambiri abwino padziko lapansi. Jurassic pterosaurs (rhamphorhinhoids) amakonda kukhala ndi mano aatali kwambiri okhala ndi gawo losalala bwino komanso chipewa chapadera cha enamel pamphepete mwa dzino. Mitundu ina imakhala ndi zitunda zazing'ono ndi zopyapyala kutalika kwa dzino, koma ambiri akadali ndi mano osalala. Ena pambuyo pake a Jurassic pterosaurs (pterodactyloids) amayamba kuwonetsa kupindika kwa mano komanso kuwonjezeka kwa kutalika kwa mafupa a burashi ya mapiko.

Mchesi, zolengedwa zambiri zinafika zazikulu, mwina chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa mpweya m'mlengalenga panthawiyo. Ma pterosaurs sanali osiyana nawo ndipo mitundu yayikulu kwambiri idadziwika munthawiyi. Mitundu yambiri yam'tsogolo inali yofalikira padziko lonse lapansi ndipo nthawi zambiri inali yayikulu kwambiri. Panalinso mitundu ingapo yaying'ono, koma yaying'ono kwambiri kuposa ya Jurassic. Izi mwina zikuchitika chifukwa cha mpikisano wa ma pterosaurs ang'onoang'ono ndi mbalame, omwe achulukana choko.

Ma pterosaurs anali oyendetsa ndege enieni, okhala ndi mapiko otha kupanga kuthekera ndi kukweza. Zinali ndi mapiko akuluakulu - mapiko owuluka. Chithandizo chachikulu cha nembanemba chowuluka chinali kutsogolo kutsogolo. Zala zitatu zoyambirira zinali ndi mawonekedwe komanso kukula kwake, chachisanu sichinapezeke, ndipo chachinayi chinafika patali modabwitsa ndipo nembanemba yopendekeka idatambasulidwa pakati pa iye ndi mbali za thupi. Mphepete yamkati ya membrane imalumikizidwa mwachindunji ndi thupi. Popeza anali atakula mopitirira muyeso, chala chachinayi chinali choposa 60% kutalika kwa kutsogolo konse. Zala zomwe zidatsala zidafupikitsidwa ndipo mwina amazigwiritsa ntchito pogwirira nyamayi panthambi za mitengo kapena pamiyala.

The membrane yekha adalimbikitsidwa ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono tambiri tating'ono, tomwe timayandikana kwambiri, osakwana 0.1 mm mulifupi, koma mpaka 100 mm kutalika, kotchedwa Actinofibrils. Zingwezi zinkapangitsa kuti mapiko ake akhale olimba komanso kuti zisasunthike, zimachepetsa kuchuluka kwa miyendo yomwe imafunikira pakumata kuti mbaliyo izikhala yolimba. Izi zinalimbitsa phiko ndikuletsa kuti lisasweke, kuchepetsa kuwonongeka. Masamba a Actinofibrils amapangidwa kuchokera mamba.

Propatagium idawonetsedwa kutsogolo kwa kutsogolo ndipo imatha kudzutsidwa kapena kutsitsidwa ndi pteroid, yomwe imasiyana ndi gulu ndi fupa. Adawongolera kuchokera m'chiwuno cha pterosaur mpaka paphewa lake, ndikuthandizira gawo la phiko. Zomwe zimapangika mwatsopano motero ndizosowa kwambiri pakati pa vertebrates, chisinthiko nthawi zambiri chimagwiritsa ntchito zida zakale, kuzisintha kuti zizigwira ntchito zatsopano.

Ulusi waukulu wam'mapiko (cheiropatagium) unalumikizidwa kumbali yakumbuyo, kutsogolo kwa thupi, komanso chakunja kwa miyendo yakumbuyo kwa bulu. Ma pterosaurs analinso ndi membrane wina (cruropatagium kapena uropatagium) wotambalala pakati pa miyendo yakumbuyo ndikuchirikizidwa ndikuwongoleredwa ndi chala chachisanu.

Cheyropathagium inali nthawi yayitali komanso yokwera kwambiri nthawi yomwe ikuuluka. Ma propatagium ndi cruropatagium mwina anali kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati chiwongolero poyendetsa ndege, kuwongolera kuthamanga, kapena kulola kutha pang'ono pang'onopang'ono panthawi yochoka kapena kutera. Zina monga zala zazing'ono zazing'ono m'manja, zomangira pa chigaza, ndi mapazi, zingakhale kuti zidagwiritsidwanso ntchito ngati malo owongolera. Ramforinchoid ndi ena enanso anali ndi loudal lobe.

Sizikudziwika ngati nembanemba yamapiko inali yolumikizidwa ku ntchafu kapena miyendo, kusiya miyendo momasuka ndikutha kuyenda pansi. Ngati nembanemba inali yolumikizidwa ku miyendo, ndiye kuti kuthamanga kwa ma pterosaurs akuwuluka mlengalenga kuli kotheka. Mapikowo adalimbikitsidwa ndi minofu yayikulu yomwe imachokera ku sternum ndikumalumikizana ndi zazikulu zakutali pafupa lakumanja (humerus). Kapangidwe ka mapewa kameneka kanathandiza kuti mapiko ake azisunthira uku ndi uku, kuzungulira, komanso kusunthira mmbuyo ndi mtsogolo. Ma pterosaurs anali osathanso kuthawa kuposa mbalame.

Ma pterosaurs ang'ono ndi ang'ono omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri kuwuluka, nthawi zina amagwiritsa ntchito kuthawa, mitundu ikuluikulu imakonda kuwuluka nthawi yayitali ikamanyamuka ndikutera, koma inkawoneka kutentha ndi kukwera mafunde nthawi yayitali kuti ipulumutse mphamvu. Ma Pterosaurs anali ndi mapiko akulu okulirapo poyerekeza ndi thupi lawo motero amatha kuuluka pang'onopang'ono. Kuphatikiza apo, mapangidwe ovuta a zida zamagetsi zomwe zimakhudza mbali yakutsogolo ndi miyendo yakumaso, kuphatikiza mbali zingapo zowongolera, zikusonyeza kuti zinapangidwanso bwino.

Kuphatikiza pa mapiko, ma pterosaurs amawonetsanso kusintha kwina kwa moyo wouluka. Malingaliro awo anali akulu kwambiri komanso ngati mbalame - kuwuluka kumafuna njira zowongolera. Koma, ngakhale bungwe lalikulu la neural limafanana ndi mbalame, ma pterosaurs anali ndi luso laling'ono loyerekeza ndi thupi kuposa mbalame. Ma Pterosaurs anali ndi ubongo waukulu wokhala ndimawonekedwe opangidwa bwino, koma anali opanga okhazikika.

Zina zomwe zimapangidwa kuti zichepetse thupi zinaphatikizapo kuchepa kwambiri kwa makulidwe amkati mwa mafupa ndi chibayo cha mafupa ambiri ndi vertebrae. Mafupa a mapiko a pterosaurs nthawi zambiri amakhala opanda kanthu, ngati mbalame, komanso makoma owonda kwambiri. Mu moyo, mafupa anali ophatikizika kwambiri ndipo anali ndi ma voids amlengalenga kuti athe kuyendetsedwa bwino. Amakhala ndi machubu opanda kanthu okhala ndi gawo loonda lakunja ndi chopindika kapena chopingasa pang'ono. Palibe umboni wowoneka bwino wa sembe ya mpweya, koma mawonekedwe a mafupa amatsimikizira kuti adakhalako. Mafupa akulu a mapiko nthawi zambiri anali ndi zida zopyapyala mtanda, makamaka kumapeto kwa mafupawo.

Amakhala ndi thupi lalifupi, lodzichepetsedwa komanso losakanikirana, malinga ndi chigaza chachikulu kwambiri (mpaka 50% kutalika kwa thupi), sternum yopangidwa kuchokera ku ma clavicles olumikizidwa. Kutalika kwa kunja kwa sternum (cristospine) kunali ngati kolala mwa mbalame. Kupeza kwa sternum kumakhala ndi keel komwe kumakhala kufunikira kwamphamvu kwa minofu yolimba.

Mzere wa vertebral wa pterosaurs ndiwosiyanitsa kwambiri. Munjira zambiri, imafanana ndi mbalame yokhala ndi lamba wolimba kwambiri wamapewa ndi m'chiuno. Pali ochepa msana vertebrae ndi ochepa kuyenda.

Zinthu zakale kwambiri zokhala ndi khosi lachiberekero. Amakhala akulu poyerekeza ndi ma vertebrae ena. Zipilala ndi nkhwangwa nthawi zambiri zimagwirizana kukhala fupa limodzi, ndipo kuwerengera ma atul ndi axis awiri, nthawi zambiri pamakhala ma cervical vertebrae oyambilira a pterosaurs, amatsika mpaka 6 pakapita nthawi komanso pterosaurs zokulirapo. Ma occipital vertebrae ali ndi gawo loonda lakunja la mafupa olimba ndi gawo lapakati la spongy fupa ndi ma pneumatic voids (ma cavity air). Palibe nthiti zachiberekero konse. Kukula kwa ma vertebrae amenewa kutengera mitundu.

Pterosaurs ang'ono. Cervical vertebrae ya pterosaurs yaying'ono, monga ramforinha ndi pterodactyl, ndizofanana ndi mitundu yambiri. Ndi chigaza chake cholimba, ramforinch imafunikira cholimba kwambiri chamatsenga. Pterodactyl vertebrae ndi yayitali komanso yosanja.

Pterosaurs zazikulu. Pteranodon ndi pterosaur wamkulu wokhala ndi ma vertebrae osankhidwa bwino a Atlanta-axis yolumikizana ndi chigaza. Cervical vertebrae yamtunduwu imakutidwa ndi fupa loonda kwambiri (mafupa olimba) ndi wosanjikiza fupa. Pali ma voids a mpweya mu fupa ndipo chibowo cha chibayo chitha kuwoneka pakatikati pa vertebra. Pafupifupi mafupa onse a msana wa pteranodon adadzazidwa ndi mpweya.

Ornithosaurs ndi gulu lomwe limasiyana kwambiri ndipo ma vertebrae awo amchiberekero amasiyana mitundu. Mwambiri, anali athyathyathya komanso kutalika ndipo anali ndi mipata yayikulu pneumatic. Palinso ma pterosaurs ambiri okhala ndi vertebrae yayitali kwambiri. Zitsanzo wamba ndizazdarkides Azhdarcho, Quetzalcoatlus ndi Arambourginiana. Malingaliro oterewa ndi osowa kwambiri.

Thunthu vertebrae. Pakhoza kukhala pali mitundu isanu ndi iwiri, koma yambiri. Mitengo ingapo yoyambilira imakonda kuphatikizana kuti ipange cholimba chogwirizira ndi scapula. Mwa mitundu ina, amapanga notarium, nthiti ya mafupa yomwe imadutsa pakati pa 6 kapena 8 vertebral process. M'mapterosaurs akuluakulu, thoracic vertebrae adaphatikizanso, ndikupanga kapangidwe kotchedwa notarium.

Spinal vertebrae. Chocheperako, pafupifupi 6, ndichifupi koma cholimba. Ma vertebrae awa amakhalanso amadzimadzi ndipo nthawi zambiri amawonetsa kutseguka kwakukulu kwa chibayo (pakuyenda kwa mpweya kulowa mufupa) mbali iliyonse. M'mitundu yambiri, dorsal vertebrae imatha kumata nthiti zazifupi.

Sacral vertebrae. Nthawi zambiri amaphatikizidwa kuti akhale olimba fupa ndikulimba mafupa a pelvis. Kwa rhamphorinchoid, kapangidwe kameneka ndi kotseguka, koma pambuyo pake mitunduyo imakhala yotseka. Nthawi zambiri kuchokera pa 6 mpaka 8 vertebrae mu sacrum. The m'chifuwa vertebrae anasakaniza mafupa a m'chiuno, ndikupanga chida cholumikizira (synsacrum), chofunikira kuti nyamayo igwe pansi.

Caudal vertebrae. Ma pterosaurs onse alipo, koma pterodactyloids ali ochepa. Mimbulu ya caudal ya ramforinha imatha kuphatikizira ma vertebrae oposa 35 ndipo iliyonse imakhala ndi mafupa awiri olimbitsa.

Ofufuza ena amati amayenda pansi pamiyendo iwiri, koma maumboni ambiri amawonetsa kuyenda kwamiyendo inayi (pafupifupi ngati ma gorilla). Mwa pterosaurs, "kunja" tarsus - chapakati komanso chachinayi kunja kwawotchi yachitatu kunja - ndi chinthu chofunikira. Tsitsi lakumapazi linali ndi sikelo yaying'ono koma yayikulu yomwe inkateteza pansi pamiyendo.

Mitundu yoyambirira inali ndi mapiko amafupiafupi, omwe amafunika kuwuluka nthawi zonse kuti athe kuuluka, mitundu ina yamtsogolo inkapanga mapiko ataliitali kuwalola kuwuluka mlengalenga ndi kuyesetsa kochepa. Mapiko ake adawapindapinda pomwe adangodamira mtengo. Ma Pterosaurs amayenera kuwerama pamene akutambasula mapiko awo kuti achoke pansi. Mapeto a pterodactyls, chala chachisanu chinasinthiratu ndikuyamba kukhala chotsalira.

Zinthu zakale zambiri zimapezeka m'madzi am'madzi komanso nyanja, kutanthauza kuti ma pterosaurs anali nyama zapagombe. Ambiri mwa ma pterosaurs amadyera nsomba, ena anali otetezeka.Palibe umboni kuti ma pterosaurs anali oviparous, popeza zomwe odalirika mazira kapena zisa za pterosaurs sizikudziwika. (Malinga ndi malipoti ena, dzira loyamba lomwe limapezeka ndi anurognathid, dzira lachi China lachigululi ndi la ornithocheid, lomwe limasungabe zina ndi cycloramphid). Panali zaka pafupifupi miliyoni miliyoni - kuyambira kumapeto kwa Triassic mpaka kumapeto kwenikweni kwa Cretaceous, atapeza chitukuko kumapeto kwa Jurassic. Imapezeka kumakontinenti onse, kuphatikiza ku Antarctica.

Mosazindikira, ma pterosaurs ndi uropathagiata omwe ali ndi izi:

• • Chigoba chokulirapo
• • kulumikizana kwa premaxillary-palatal, komwe sikumapatula chibwano chapamwamba kuchokera kumalire otsegula mkati mwa mphuno
• • kufalikira kwa mafupa akufupi a maxillary akukhudzana ndi mafupa apambuyo
• • preorbital orifice imakulitsidwa
• • mano pa fupa lowonjezera komanso awiri pakati pa nsagwada yayikulu
• • mafupa a palatine amapanga m'mphepete mwa khomo lamkati
• • pali kotseguka pakati pa ma pterygoid ndi maziko a manteni (interterigoid void)
• • humerus ili pafupi kutalika ndi ntchafu
• • Manja awiri oyandikana kwambiri ndi omwe amaphatikizidwa amaphatikizidwa mwa akuluakulu kuti apange syncarpal.
• • Zitatu mwa mikono inayi yakumaso imafooka mwa akulu, ndikupanga kulumikizana kwakunja.
• • phalanx penultimate ya zala I - III anawonjezera
• • Chala chachinayi chili ndi ma phalange atali anayi komanso olimba, pakalibe phalax. Malo omwe amalumikizana ndi mbali zina amalola kuyenda pang'ono.

Laopteryx priscum. Laopteryx. "Mapiko okalamba a zaka zabwino kwambiri." Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian - Tithonian), USA (Wyoming). Chachikulu kuposa heron ya buluu. Chigoba chosakhalitsa choyambirira choyenerera kukhala mbalame. Kumbuyo kwa chigaza kunapezeka ndipo dzino lokhalo linapezeka pafupi, lomwe lingakhale la nyama ina. Zotsalira ndizogawika kwambiri kuti zitheke banja.

Mbiri yophunzira

Pterodactylus (Collini, 1784)

Kafukufuku wa asayansi a pterosaurs adayamba mu 1784, pomwe wachilengedwe wachilengedwe a cosimo Alessandro Collini adafotokoza mafotokozedwe achimfupa cha nyama yachilendo yokhalaatsogola, yomwe ili ndi chala cham'manja, yomwe ikupezeka m'malo omwe panali Solnhofen, Germany. Adavomereza kuti chala chachitali chimatha kuthandizira nembira yofanana ndi mapiko a bat, koma popeza cholengedwa chosadziwika chidapezeka m'makoma am'madzi, adaganiza kuti manja achilendo awa adagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zitoliro. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1800, cholengedwa cha ku France chotchedwa Georges Cuvier, chinaphunziridwa ndi nyama ya ku France. Mu 1809 adatcha cholengedwa Ptero-dactyle ("Zala zam'manja"). Kuyambira pano, zotsalira za ma pterosaurs onse omwe adapezeka adatchedwa pterodactyls, ndipo mchaka cha 1834 pomwe katswiri wazachilengedwe waku Germany, aJacob Kaup, adapereka dzinalo ku zatsopano zowuluka zouluka - "Pterosauria"(Pterosaurs).

Ku Great Britain chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 18, mu Jurassic deposits of Stonefield (Oxfordshire), mafupa a pterosaurs adapezekanso, koma adawonedwa ngati mafupa a mbalame ndipo ambiri sanazindikire. Zotsalira za mafupa zatsopano zidapezeka ndi a Moni wa ku 19 kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1800, koma katswiri wazachilengedwe Cuvier adazionanso ngati mafupa a mbalame. Lingaliro ili la akatswiri a paleontologists koyambirira kwa zaka za XIX, kuphatikiza a William Buckland ndi a Mageell a Mantell, zidapangitsa kuti mabwinja a pterosaurs zaka makumi angapo asadziwikebe ku Britain Jurassic ndi Cretaceous.

Kukonzanso Dimorphodon, 1864

Izi zinachedwetsa chizindikiritso cha ma pterosaurs mpaka kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1820, pamene William Buckland adafotokoza zamtunduwu "Pterodactylus macronyx"(Dimorphodon). Ngakhale zitachitika izi, mafupa ambiri owoneka bwino koma ochulukirapo a pterosaurs adadziwika molakwika kuti ndi avian, ngakhale kuti palibe umboni wotsimikiza kuti mbalame za Mesozoic zidakhalapo mpaka atapeza Archeopteryx m'ma 1860s. Zotsalira za pterosaurs zazikulu zidapezeka koyamba ku UK zaka 20 asanachitike pteranodon wotchuka (Pteranodon), kuchokera ku Cretaceous amana ku Kansas. Komabe, zinthu za ku Britain zidagawika kwambiri (ornithoheir) kotero zidapita osazindikirika ndipo zinkaphimbidwa mosavuta ndi zochititsa chidwi,

Kumangidwanso kwa Ramphorhynchus (Marsh, 1882)

mafupa pafupifupi athunthu a pteranodon opezeka ndi Otniel Marsh m'ma 1870s. Mu 1882, a Charles Marsh adalongosola chithunzi choyambirira cha pterosaur ndi membrane wopindika, yemwe adawatcha "Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus"(ramforinh). Zomwe zidapezeka kuchokera ku zigawo zam'magazi a Zolnhofen zimasungidwa bwino kwambiri pamapiko a nyamayo, komanso kukula kwa mawonekedwe a diamondi kumapeto kwa mchira. Marsh adakhulupirira kuti" ndalama "iyi idalowedwa ndendende chifukwa inali yaying'ono ndipo inali yogwiritsidwa ntchito kukonza. kutsegula kwamphamvu pakuuluka.

Giant pterosaurs

Kumangidwanso kwa pteranodon (Marsh, 1884)

Mpaka 1870, pterosaurs wamkulu kwambiri amadziwika ndi zidutswa zingapo kuchokera ku malo a Cretaceous kum'mwera kwa England ndipo anali ndi mapiko okwera mamitala atatu, kufananizira ndi kukula kwa mbalame zamakono zazikulu, monga albatross ndi voul. Mbiri ya zaka zana mphambu zisanu za pterosaurs yayikulu, ikuwoneka kuchokera pakupezeka koyamba kwambiri kwa pterosaurs onse akuluakulu - Pteranodon (Pteranodon): poyamba, Charles Marsh adalengeza za kutulutsa nyama yokhala ndi mapiko a 6.6 metres, pambuyo pake mapezedwe amaloledwa kupeza zinthu kuchokera pachiyerekezo cha mamita 7.6. Pteranodon ndi amodzi mwa zolengedwa zotchuka komanso zotchuka kwambiri za Mesozoic pambuyo pa Tyrannosaurus rex, kutenga malo okhazikika pamaso pa anthu ngati archetypal pterodactyl. Kupezedwa kwa pteranodon kunaphimbidwa ndi zomwe amapeza m'mbuyomu a pretosaous achingelezi, anali woyamba wa akatswiri otchuka kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi omwe adadziwika kuti amapanga sayansi mwanjira zambiri, osati kuchokera kuzinthu zazing'ono, ndipo adayamba kukhala katswiri wazopeka "zapamwamba kwambiri" m'mafilimu akuti "The Lost World" ndi Arthur Conan Doyle (1922) ndi Jurassic Park wolemba Michael Crichton - Cearadactylus mu buku ndi Pteranodon mumafilimu.

M'zaka makumi angapo zoyambirira za zana la 20 lino, palibe zotsalira za pterosaurs zazikulu kuposa pteranodon zapezeka. Mbiri ya Marichi ya pterosaur yaku America, nyama yayikulu kwambiri yowuluka kwazaka 80, idatsimikiziridwa ndi mafupa omwe adafotokozedwa ndi C.A. Arambourg mu 1954. Fupa la theka la mamilimita (500 mm), lochokera ku maofesi aku Kampani ya Cretaceous nthawi ya Yordano, limatanthauzidwa ngati fupa la mapiko lomwe lili ndi mapiko a mita 7, omwe anali ofanana ndi mapiko a pteranodon. Patatha zaka zisanu, chitsanzo ichi chinalandira dzina lasayansi. Titanopteryx philidelphiae (Arambourg 1959) - "mapiko a titanic."

Mu 1970s, zidutswa zatsopano za pterosaur wamkulu zidapezeka, zomwe zidapereka malingaliro atsopano okhudzana ndi kukula kwa pterosaur wamkulu. Humerus ya kutalika kwa 544 mm ndi zinthu zina za mapiko akulu aku Texas zidafotokozedwa ndi Douglas Lawson mu 1972, kuwonetsa kukhalapo kwa pterosaurs okhala ndi mapiko apamwamba kwambiri kuposa 7 metres. Mu 1975, chimphona chatsopanocho chimatchedwa Quetzalcoatl (Quetzalcoatlus), humerus ya chimphona ichi chinali chachikulu kwambiri kuposa humerus yayikulu kwambiri ya pteranodon, zomwe zikusonyeza kuti pterosaur anali ndi mapiko pafupifupi mita 15. M'chaka chomwecho, a Douglas A. Lawson, akuwerenga mabwinja a quetzalcoatl, adazindikira kuti chinthu choyambirira cha Aramburg sichinali fupa la mapiko, koma khomo lachiberekero. Khosi lalitali la Quetzalcoatl lidutsa chidwi chachikulu, lofanana ndi kukula kwake kwakukulu. Ma vertebrae angapo okwera pang'ono, otalika kwambiri kuposa kutalika kwake maulendo 8, omwe amadziwika kuti ndi khomo lachiberekero, adapereka gawo lapadera kuzindikirika kwa Quetzalcoatl. Kuyerekeza kukula kwa quetzalcoatl kunawunikiridwa ndi Van Langston mu 1981. Ndemanga iyi idapeza kuti mafupa a pterosaur wamamita khumi ndi asanu mosavutikira amavutika kwambiri chifukwa cha kuthawa. Robert Bakker (1986) adanena kuti ndizochepa zomwe zimadziwika za kulumikizana kwa quetzalcoatl kuyerekezera mapiko; Becker adati kuyerekezera kwamapiko kwa mita 15 kuyenera kuvomerezedwa mpaka umboni wotsutsana nawo. Komabe, pambuyo pake zapezedwa mafupa kuchokera kuzinthu zazing'ono, koma zogwirizana, monga Zhejiangopterus (Cai & Wei 1994) akuwonetsa kuwerengera kwamapiko a Quetzalcoatl pafupifupi mita 11. Ziwerengerozi zikuwonetsa kuti mapiko a quetzalcoatl anali okulirapo pafupifupi 40% kuposa pteranodon ndipo moyenerera ndi imodzi mwazinyama zazikulu kwambiri zodziwika.

Mu 1980s, a Lev Nesov a Russian paleontologist adasinthidwa Titanopteryx mu mtundu watsopano Aramburgiana (Arambourgiania), polemekeza K. Aramburg, woyamba kuphunzira izi zochititsa chidwi. Mu 1998, a David M. Martill ndi gulu la ofufuza adawonjezera zolemba za Jordan. Poyerekeza ma vertebra osakwanira a Aramburgian ndi Quetzalcoatl, adazindikira kuti nyamayi idafika kumapiko kwa mamita 11-13: motero, chitsanzo ichi, chomwe chimapezeka koyambirira kwa 1940s, chimapangitsa kukhala pterosaur wamkulu woyamba wopezeka wamkulu kuposa pteranodon, ngakhale Zinatenga pafupifupi zaka 60 kuti amvetse izi. Zofufuzanso zinayamba kupereka zatsopano za ma pterosaurs akuluakulu aku Europe. Mu 1996, a Martill adalemba za chidutswa cha mapiko chomwe chimapezeka m'mphepete mwa Isle of Wight, kumwera kwa England, chomwe chili ndi mapiko a mita 9. Mu 1997, Eric Buffett adatulutsa khosi lachiberekero la chiberekero cha French Pyrenees, chomwe chimafotokoza nyama yofanana. mu 2001, azhdarchide yokulirapo idanenedwa kuchokera ku chiwonongeko cha Valencia, Spain, yomwe ili ndi mapiko akufufuza pafupifupi 12 m.

Posachedwa, zidutswa zokhala zikuluzikulu za pterosaur zazikulu kwambiri zapezeka, zomwe akuti zimapezeka ku Maastrichtian ku Romania, ku Hateg dera la Transylvania. Chimphona chatsopanochi chidafotokozedwa ndi paleontologist Eric Buffett ndipo adatchedwa Hatzegopteryks (Khalidkhalat), imaphatikizanso zidutswa za chigaza cha chimphona chachikulu cha azhdarchid, mafupa ochepa a chigaza amawonetsa kuti kutalika konse kwa nsagwada kumatha kufika mpaka mamita 2.5. Zidutswa zina zamafupa, poyerekeza ndi Quetzalcoatl, zikuwonetsa kuti inali ndi mapiko pafupifupi 12 m. Mbiri yofunafuna ndi kuphunzira ma pterosaurs akuluakulu sinathe, ikuyenda mwadongosolo mu mileniaum yatsopano, mtsogolomo, tidzakhala ndi zinthu zambiri zatsopano, zodabwitsa.

Kuchulukitsa

Pachikhalidwe chawo, ma pterosaurs adagawika m'magawo awiri: Rhamphorhynchoidea, gulu "loyambirira" la pterosaurs atalitali, ndi Pterodactyloidea, pterosaurs "apamwamba" apamwamba. Komabe, pakadali pano, magawidwe achikhalidwe awa ndi akale. Pakadali pano, pankhani yachilengedwe, gulu la Rhamphorhynchoidea limadziwika kuti ndi gulu la paraphyletic, ndipo popeza oimira Pterodactyloidea adawachokera, osati kuchokera kwa kholo limodzi, gululi limataya mwayi wokhala “wogonjera” ndipo satha kugwiritsidwa ntchito pakati pa asayansi ambiri.

• Banja la Dimorphodontidae (Dimorphodontidae)
• Banja la Rhamphorhynchidae
• Campylognathoides Banja (Campylognathoides)
• Banja Vukongopteridae (Wukongopteridae)
• Banja Anurognathida (Anurognathidae)

• Pterodactylids (Pterodactylidae)
• Banja la Germanyopterids (Germanyodactylidae)
• Ctenochasmatidae banja (Ctenochasmatidae)
• Banja la Istiodactylidae (Istiodactylidae)
• Banja la Nyctosauridae (Nyctosauridae)
• Pteranodontidae Banja (Pteranodontidae)
• Banja Ornithocheirids (Ornithocheiridae)
• Banja la Ayangueridae (Anhangueridae)
• Banja la Tapejaridae
• Thalassodromids (Thalassodromidae)
• Dzungaripterida banja (Dsungaripteridae)
• Banja la Azhdarchidae (Azhdarchidae)

Khalidwe la Pterosaur

Malo okhala ma pterosaurs anali osiyana kwambiri. Izi zimatsimikiziridwa ndi kusiyanasiyana kwa mitundu ya ma pterosaurs, makamaka mawonekedwe a khosi lawo, mutu ndi mano. Ma pterosaurs ena anali ovala zovala ndipo mwina ankadya masamba, ngati maudzu amakono. Mitundu ina inali ndi mano ataliitali opindika zomwe zimapangitsa kuti nsomba zizikhala zosavuta. Ena ankadya tizilombo, ndipo kunalinso mitundu ina yomwe idadya nkhono zing'onozing'ono. Zomwe zimapezekanso pamapazi a ma pterosaurs ena zimawonetsa kuti atha kukhala pamadzi ngati abakha. Zotsalira zambiri za ma pterosaurs omwe amapezeka mumtsinje wa nyanja, nyanja ndi nyanja, ndipo izi zikuonetsa kuti anthu ena ankakhala munyanja, ngati ma albatrosses.

Chinthu chinanso chotsalira cha ma pterosaurs ndi kupendekera pamutu (nthawi zina ndimakongoletsedwe achikuda), omwe, mwambiri, umalankhula za mawonekedwe a mating. Ngati njira zogwirizira za ma pterosaurs zinali zosiyana ndi za mbalame zamakono, ndiye kuti asayansi akadali ndi zambiri zoti aphunzire za iwo.

Tikudziwa kuti pterosaurs ankacheza ndi ma dinosaurs, koma nthawi zambiri amakhala chakudya chawo. Osachepera kawiri, asayansi apeza zotsalira za ma pterosaurs, omwe matupi awo anali mano a theropod. Pa chimodzi mwazipeza, dzino la spinosaurus lomwe limatuluka kuchokera pakhosi la pterosaur. Asayansi adapezanso mapiko a pterosaur okhala ndi mano a dromaeosaurid. Komabe, palibe umboni wa mgwirizano wapakati pa pterosaurs ndi ma dinosaurs.

Zoposa pterodactyl

Panali mitundu yambiri yosiyanasiyana ya ma pterosaurs. Mitundu yaying'ono kwambiri inali ndi khosi lalifupi komanso mapiko osakwana mita. Mitundu yayikulu kwambiri inali ndi khosi lalitali (kupitirira mikono iwiri m'litali), mutu waukulu (wopitilira mamita awiri) ndi mapiko a mita 9 mpaka 13. Ma pterosaurs a Triassic ndi Late Jurassic anali ndi michira yayitali, ndipo ma pterosaurs a Cretaceous anali kale ofupika. Pafupifupi mitundu ya ma pterosaurs a 120 amadziwika, ndipo mwina, asayansi apeza mitundu yatsopano yambiri.

M'mabuku, mawu awiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito (ndipo nthawi zina molakwika): pterosaurs ndi pterodactyls. Mawu oyamba amachokera ku mawu Pterosauriaomwe amasankha pterosaurs onse. Mawu akuti "pterodactyl" amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri osaphunzitsidwa kutanthauza ma pterosaurs onse, koma nthawi zina asayansi amagwiritsa ntchito kutanthauza mtundu wa ma pterosaurs, omwe amadziwika ndi mphuno pamodzi ndi anterior orbital foramen. Awa ndi dzenje lomwe amatanthauzira kuti liwu antorbital fenestra, amalumikizana ndi mphuno, ndikupanga kakhwawa lalikulu m'chigoba cha pterosaurs. Dzina lasayansi la pterosaurs okhala ndi chigaza ndi Pterodactyloideakoma akatswiri ena amawatcha kuti pterodactyls. Mtunduwu unali ndi mchira wamfupi. Pterodactyls ankakhala ku Cretaceous.

Zaposachedwa

M'zaka za zana la 20, asayansi anapeza mitundu yambiri yatsopano ya pterosaurs. Amakhala mu nthawi ya Triassic, Jurassic ndi Cretaceous. Kwa zaka 20 zapitazi, mitundu iwiri yaopterosa yapezeka kuposa zaka 200 zapitazi. Ndikofunikira kuti pakati pa zomwe apezazi panali zomwe zidapangitsa kuti athe kuphunzira za paleobiology ndi chilengedwe cha pterosaurs. Ku Argentina ndi China, asayansi apeza mazira a pterosaur okhala ndi mazira mkati. Nthawi yomweyo, ku China, asayansi adapezanso dzira mkati mwa pterosaur wamkazi. Izi zikusonyeza kuti ma pterosaurs anali ndi mazira awiriawiri.

Mimbulu yomwe yapezeka yapanga mafupa ofanana ndi mafupa a anthu akuluakulu. Izi zikusonyeza kuti ma pterosaurs adaphunzira kuuluka kwambiri atabadwa. Ku China ndi ku Brazil, asayansi apeza malo okhala zisa. Izi zikutanthauza kuti ma pterosaurs ayenera kukhala ambiri m'magulu.

Kafukufuku wambiri adachitika momwe ofufuza adayesetsa kuwerengera kulemera kwa pterosaurs. Zinapezeka kuti anali ovuta kwambiri kuposa momwe amaganizira kale. Chosangalatsa ndichakuti mitundu ya ma pterosaurs monga quetzalcoatli inali yolemera kwambiri kotero kuti amathera nthawi yawo yambiri padziko lapansi. Kusanthula kwa ubongo wa ma pterosaurs kunawonetsa kuti anali ndi zazikulu (poyerekeza ndi mbalame) ngalande za semicircular. Amadziwikanso kuti ma pterosaurs adawuluka mitu yawo pansi, ndipo izi zimawasiyanitsa ndi mbalame.

Pali mafunso ambiri otseguka, koma chaka chilichonse asayansi amapeza mitundu yatsopano ya pterosaurs, ndipo izi zimatipatsa mwayi kuti tidziwe zambiri. Posachedwa, njira zatsopano zophunzirira pterosaurs zawonekera. Chosangalatsa kwambiri pa iwo ndi compression tomography.Zimathandizira ma paleontologists kuwona zamkati mwa mafupawo. Zipangizo zamphamvu kwambiri zimaloleza kuganizira zotsalira zomwe sizimalekanitsidwa ndi mwala. Kulemba mbiri kumatha kukhala kodula, koma zotsatira zake zimakhala zodabwitsa kwambiri. Njira izi ndi zina zambiri zidatilola kupenda zotsalira za ma pterosaurs omwe asayansi apeza pazaka mazana ambiri. Tsogolo la kafukufuku wa pterosaur limawoneka lowala.